1. A cell needs to produce more Tyrosine Kinase, an enzyme, in order to break do
ID: 146720 • Letter: 1
Question
1. A cell needs to produce more Tyrosine Kinase, an enzyme, in order to break down certain molecules, how the cell do this? 2. Compare and contrast the different ways a cell might try to maintain its surface area to volume ratio. 3. How might the structure of a membrane create potential issues in nasal drug delivery? 4. Discuss how the different structures of prion proteins can be affected to cause transmissive spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). 5. Describe 5 ways a scientist could make nasal drug delivery more efficient 6. Describe 5 potential treatments for prion diseases.Explanation / Answer
Part-5- Nasal Drops and Sprays- nasal drops are one of the only and maximum convenient transport structures amongst all formulations. the principle obstacle is the dearth of precision within the administered dosage and the hazard of contamination in the course of use. nasal drops can be brought with a pipette or via a squeezy bottle. those formulations are usually encouraged for the remedy of local situations, however demanding situations include microbial growth, mucociliary dysfunction and non-specific loss from the nostril or down again the throat.
nasal gels
a gel is a soft, solid or semi-stable-like fabric consisting of or greater components, certainly one of which is a liquid, found in giant quantity. the semi-solid characteristics of gels can be described in phrases of two dynamic mechanical houses: elastic modulus g’ and viscous modulus g”. the rheological homes of gels depend on the polymer kind, awareness and physical kingdom of the gel. they are able to vary from viscous solutions (e.g. hypromellose, methylcellulose, xanthan gum, and chitosan) to very tough, brittle gels (e.g. gellan gum, pectin and alginate). bioadhesive polymers have shown properly capacity for nasal formulations and may manage the fee and extent of drug release resulting inside the reduced frequency of drug management and advanced affected person compliance. moreover, the prolonged touch time afforded at the site of absorption can improve drug bioavailability by means of slowing down mucociliary motion determined improvements within the solubility of roxithromycin loaded into chitosan microspheres in comparison with the free drug whilst the intranasal drug absorption became assessed in vivo in rats.
nasal suspensions and emulsions
suspensions are rarely used or investigated as nasal drug transport systems. analogous to advertised aqueous ophthalmic suspensions of the soft corticosteroid, loteprednol etabonate (e.g. alrex®, bausch and lomb prescribed drugs), a nasal aqueous suspension of identical drug containing microcrystalline sodium carboxymethylcellulose for stabilization and retention in the nasal hollow space become patented by means of senju prescription drugs inc and became intended for the neighborhood remedy of allergic rhinitis.
nasal powders
particulate nasal dosage forms are usually organized by way of simply mixing the drug substance and the excipients, by means of spray-drying or freeze-drying of a drug. dry-powder formulations containing bioadhesive polymers for the nasal shipping of peptides and proteins became first investigated through. water-insoluble cellulose derivatives were combined with insulin and the powder aggregate become administered nasally. the powder took up water, swelled, and hooked up a gel with an extended residence time inside the nasal hollow space. glucose discount becomes one-0.33 of that finished using an i.v. injection of the same insulin dose. powder formulations for nasal drug transport have considering the fact that been broadly investigated, e.g. for a somatostatin analogue the usage of pass-connected dextran and microcrystalline cellulose, for glucagon the usage of microcrystalline cellulose, for leuprolide and calcitonin the use of microcrystalline cellulose in mixture with hydroxypropyl cellulose, and for gentamicin sulfate the use of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. a bioadhesive powder containing beclomethasone dipropionate for local treatment of allergic rhinitis and hydroxypropyl cellulose because the carrier had a considerably more suitable nasal house time compared with administration of an answer as drops. as compared the nasal retention time of apomorphine, freeze-dried with lactose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose.
nasal microparticles
the use of microparticles as every other way of prolonging the house time inside the nasal hollow space was brought in. it became proposed that microspheres of albumin, starch, and deae-dextran (diethyl aminoethyl-dextran) absorbed water and fashioned a gel-like layer which turned into cleared slowly from the nasal cavity. three hours after management, 50% of the added amount of albumin and starch microspheres and 60% of the dextran microspheres were nevertheless gifting at the site of deposition. it becomes suggested that an extended contact time ought to boom the absorption efficiency of drugs. as proposed, the relative intranasal bioavailability (v.s. subcutaneous) of human boom hormone in sheep became extended from 0.1% for the answer to 2.7% for the degradable starch microsphere system.
Part-6-
small molecules
odds are that maximum pills you’ve ever taken, for anything from a headache to a bacterial contamination to birth control, have been what we call small molecules. as an example, ibuprofen, the painkiller whose molecular structure is proven above, is a small molecule. this just way it is fabricated from exceedingly few atoms – 33 atoms in the case of ibuprofen.
the “small” in a small molecule is crucial because it approaches that those tablets are frequently (although no longer usually) pretty clean to manage. think about painkillers for a moment – while you swallow a pill, that molecule is capable of getting from your stomach to just about every part of your body, which is why it could paintings whether or not you’ve hurt your foot or your neck.
antibodies
antibodies are proteins produced through the immune system that can bind to a specific “enemy” target – commonly another protein. your body can produce antibodies naturally in response to viral infections, bacterial infections, most cancers, and so on – they’re a critical component of how you fight off infections. and once your frame has discovered an antibody towards something terrible, it recollects how to make it for destiny reference – that’s why humans typically don’t get chook pox two times.
modern technology is likewise capable of producing antibodies out of doors of the body to be used as remedies for illnesses. if you’ve taken a drug apart from a small molecule, odds are properly that it became an antibody – some of the most commonplace ones are Humira and Herceptin. antibodies have to be injected, now not taken orally, and they’re frequently for greater critical conditions like autoimmune illnesses or most cancers – and no longer just for headaches.
antibodies in opposition to prp will be one capacity remedy for prion sicknesses. ability treatments for any ailment typically begin in a take a look at the tube, then flow on to a mouse, and then eventually move on to human beings. antibodies are not an exception.
gene silencing
gene silencing is using RNA or DNA to “flip off” a gene as a remedy for a sickness. this idea is a great deal extra experimental – many greater years far away from clinical trials – than small molecule tablets or antibodies – but in the end, it might prove very promising.
one element we recognize for certain about prions is that you couldn't have a prion disorder without prp. while mice had been infected with prions and then later the prion protein gene changed turned off, the mice fully recovered from the sickness. so if we should determine out a way to show off the prion protein gene, prnp, in humans, and make it forestall producing prp, then we might be able to therapy prion diseases altogether, even after sufferers are becoming ill.
but that’s huge if. whilst researchers shut off the prion protein gene in mice, they used a unique genetic manipulation that isn’t feasible in humans. now, some researchers are looking for small molecule tablets that could make the frame produce much less prp, however no without a doubt strong candidates have emerged just yet. so another opportunity is to apply gene silencing to close off the delivery of prp.
vaccines
for prion sickness. because prion illnesses can in uncommon cases be received as infections, it's miles tempting to make analogies to viruses, and to the massive advances in public fitness that have been made through vaccination campaigns towards viruses like smallpox and polio. but there are many reasons to suppose this approach won’t paintings for prion sickness. prp isn’t an overseas pathogen, it’s a protein your very own frame produces, so causing the body to mount an immune reaction in opposition to prp is both tough to do and doubtlessly dangerous.
stem cell therapy
for prion sickness. this has been proposed in numerous forms: it is able to contain looking to generate new brain cells to replace ones that sufferers have misplaced, or it could involve adding more, genetically changed cells to a patient’s brain to provide unique proteins or other therapeutic agents so that it will slow down prion infection.
Part-4- the crucial event within the development of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (tses) is the conformational exchange of a number-encoded membrane protein - the cell prpc - into a disease associated, fibril-forming isoform prpsc. this conformational transition from the -helix-rich cellular form into the specially -sheet containing counterpart initiates an ‘autocatalytic’ response which ends up in the accumulation of amyloid fibrils in the significant anxious system (cns) and to neurodegeneration, an indicator of tses.
Part-3- membrane permeability nasal membrane permeability is the maximum vital factor, which influences the absorption of the drug via the nasal route. the water-soluble tablets and especially big molecular weight pills like peptides and proteins are having the low membrane permeability. so the compounds like peptides and proteins are especially absorbed thru the endocytotic shipping manner in low quantities. water-soluble high molecular weight capsules cross the nasal mucosa in particular by using passive diffusion via the aqueous pores (i.e. tight junctions).
Part-2- Folding of the membrane/microvilli cell increase their surface area ratio to absorb more nutrient other way is they Increase their surface area with a biconcave shape adaptability, like in red blood cells.
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