please read the instructions very carefully. use the information below to naswer
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please read the instructions very carefully. use the information below to naswer the assignement #7. please help
For Assignment #7, look for and identify a healthcare-related article/experience/example/real story that illustrates [positively or negatively] any one of the 20 fallacies [11 fallacies of relevance and 9 fallacies of insufficient evidence] that are discussed in the fallacies handout posted in this week’s folder Indicate the particular fallacy evidenced/experienced and describe the consequences/implications of its utilization. Post your 1-2 page analysis/reflection paper assignment and any article attachment(s) here. Please remember to place your name on it. Thanks!
Introduction to Logical Fallacies
PHI 301/302 Critical Thinking/Applied Critical Thinking
A logical fallacy is an argument that contains a mistake in reasoning. Fallacies can be divided into two broad groups: fallacies of relevance and fallacies of insufficient evidence. Fallacies of relevance are arguments in which the premises are logically irrelevant to the conclusion. Fallacies of insufficient evidence are arguments in which the premises, though logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion.
A statement is relevant to another statement if it provides at least some evidence or reason for thinking that the second statement is true or false. There are three ways in which a statement can be relevant or irrelevant to another. A statement can be positively relevant, negatively relevant, or logically irrelevant to another statement. A statement is positively relevant to another statement if it provides at least some reason for thinking that the second statement is true. A statement is negatively relevant to another statement if it provides at least some reason for thinking that the second statement is false. A statement is logically irrelevant to another statement if it provides no reason for thinking that the second statement is either true or false.
Fallacies of Relevance
There are eleven common fallacies of relevance:
1. Personal attack (ad hominem): The rejection of a person’s argument or claim by means of an attack on the person’s character rather than the person’s argument or claim.
Example
Professor Snodblatt has argued against the theory of evolution. But Snodblatt is a pompous, egotistical windbag, and a card-carrying member of the Communist Bikers’ Association. I absolutely refuse to listen to him.
2. Attacking the motive: Criticizing a person’s motivation for offering a particular argument or claim, rather than examining the worth of the argument or claim itself.
Example
Jim Gibson has argued that we need to build a new middle school. But Gibson is the owner of Gibson’s Construction Company. He’ll make a fortune if his company is picked to build the new school. Obviously, Gibson’s argument is a lot of self-serving baloney.
3. Look who’s talking (tu quoque): The rejection of another person’s argument or claim because that person is a hypocrite.
Example
My opponent, Bill Peters, has accused me of running a negative political campaign. But Peters has run a much more negative campaign than I have. Just last week he ran television ads falsely accusing me of incest, child abuse, and cruelty to animals. Clearly, Peters’s charge that I’m guilty of mudslinging is untrue.
4. Two wrongs make a right: Attempting to justify a wrongful act by claiming that some other act is just as bad or worse.
Example
I admit we plied Olympic officials with booze, prostitutes, free ski vacations, and millions of dollars in outright bribes in order to be selected as the site of the next winter Olympics. But everybody does it. That’s the way the process works. Therefore, paying those bribes wasn’t really wrong.
5. Appeal to force: Threatening harm to a reader or listener, when the threat is irrelevant to the truth of the arguer’s conclusion.
Example
You’ve argued that Coach Bubba should be fired because he’s twice been arrested for starting barroom brawls. But Coach Bubba is the winningest football coach we’ve ever had at Culmbank High. He doesn’t deserve to be fired. And if you can’t understand that, maybe these boys with baseball bats can change your mind.
6. Appeal to pity: Attempting to evoke feelings of pity or compassion, when such feelings, however understandable, are not relevant to the truth of the arguer’s conclusion.
Example
Officer, I know I was going 80 mph in a 15-mph school zone. But I don’t deserve a speeding ticket. I’ve had a really tough week. Yesterday, I got fired from my job, and last Monday my Chihuahua got eaten by a Great Dane.
7. Bandwagon argument: An appeal to a person’s desire to be popular, accepted, or valued rather than to logically relevant reasons or evidence.
Example
All the popular, cool kids at Westmont Middle School wear Mohawk haircuts. Therefore, you should, too.
8. Straw man: The misrepresentation of another person’s position in order to make that position easier to attack.
Example
Professor Strinberg has argued that the Bible should not be read literally. Obviously, Strinberg believes that any reading of the Bible is as good as any other. But this would mean that there is no difference between a true interpretation of Scripture and a false interpretation. Such a view is absurd.
9. Red herring: An attempt to sidetrack an audience by raising an irrelevant issue and then claiming that the original issue has been effectively settled by the irrelevant diversion.
Example
Frank has argued that Volvos are safer cars than Ford Mustang convertibles. But Volvos are clunky, boxlike cars, whereas Mustang convertibles are sleek, powerful, and sexy. Clearly, Frank doesn’t know what he’s talking about.
10. Equivocation: The use of a key word in an argument in two (or more) different sense
Example
In the summer of 1940, Londoners were bombed almost every night. To be bombed is to be intoxicated. Therefore, in the summer of 1940, Londoners were intoxicated almost every night.
11. Begging the question: Stating or assuming as a premise the very thing one is seeking to prove as a conclusion.
Example
I am entitled to say whatever I choose, because I have a right to say whatever I please.
Summary of Fallacies of Relevance
Personal attack: Arguer attacks the character of another arguer.
Attacking the motive: Arguer attacks the motive of another arguer.
Look who’s talking: Arguer attacks the hypocrisy of the arguer.
Two wrongs make a right: Arguer tries to justify a wrong by citing another wrong.
Appeal to force: Arguer threatens a reader or listener.
Appeal to pity: Arguer tries to evoke pity from a reader or listener.
Bandwagon argument: Arguer appeals to a readers or listener’s desire to be accepted or valued.
Straw man: Arguer misrepresents an opponent’s view.
Red herring: Arguer tires to distract the attention of the audience by raising an irrelevant issue.
Equivocation: arguer uses a key word in two or more senses.
Begging the question: Arguer assumes the point to be proven.
Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence
Fallacies insufficient evidence are arguments in which the premises, though logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to provide sufficient evidence to support the conclusion.
There are nine common fallacies of insufficient evidence:
1. Inappropriate appeal to authority: Citing a witness or an authority that is untrustworthy.
Example
My hairdresser told me that extraterrestrials built the lost city of Atlantis. So, it's reasonable to believe that extraterrestrials did build the lost city of Atlantis.
2. Appeal to ignorance: Claiming that something is true because no one has proven it false, or vice versa.
Example
Bigfoot must exist. No one has proved that it doesn't.
3. False alternatives: Posing a false either/or choice.
Example
The choice in this election is clear. Either we elect a staunch conservative as our next president, or we watch as our country slides into anarchy and economic depression. Clearly, we don't want our country to slide into anarchy and economic depression. Therefore, we should elect a staunch conservative as our next president.
4. Loaded question: Posing a question that contains an unfair or unwarranted presupposition. .
Example
AI: Are you still dating that total loser Phil?
Mary: Yes.
AI: Well, at least you admit he's a total loser.
5. Questionable cause: Claiming, without sufficient evidence, that one thing is the cause of something else.
Example
Two days after I drank lemon tea, my head cold cleared up completely. Try it. It works.
6. Hasty generalization: Drawing a general conclusion from a sample that is biased or too small.
Example
BMWs are a pile of junk. I have two friends who drive BMWs, and both of them have had nothing but trouble from those cars.
7. Slippery slope: Claiming, without sufficient evidence, that a seemingly harmless action, if taken, will lead to a disastrous outcome.
Example
Immediate steps should be taken to reduce violence in children's television programming. If this violent programming is allowed to continue, this will almost certainly lead to fights and acts of bullying in school playgrounds. This in turn will lead to an increase in juvenile delinquency and gang violence. Eventually, our entire society will become engulfed in an orgy of lawlessness and brutality.
8. Weak analogy: Comparing things that aren't really comparable.
Example
Nobody would buy a car without first taking it for a test drive. Why then shouldn't two mature high school juniors live together before they decide whether to get married?
9. Inconsistency: Asserting inconsistent premises, asserting a premise that is inconsistent with the conclusion, or arguing for inconsistent conclusions.
Example
Note found in a Forest Service suggestion box: Park visitors need to know how important it is to keep this wilderness area completely pristine and undisturbed. So why not put up a few signs to remind people of this fact?
[Adapted from Critical Thinking: A Student’s Introduction
Bassham/Irwin/Nardone/Wallace, (2002) McGraw-Hill, (pp. 158-61, 187-8)]
Explanation / Answer
Assignment #7
Bandwagon Argument
Bandwagon Argument refers to doing what others are doing in order to be relevant. In healthcare domain, one of the key event that is rising nowadays is Integrative Medicine (IM). Sometimes they are also known as Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM).
A young boy was in a state of epilepticus and the doctors were out of answers. This happened at University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health. The doctors then began consulting with Integrative medicine program and asked for an acupuncturist. After several treatment by the acupuncturist (in addition to regular medical practice) the seizures stopped.
Events such as mentioned above has been causing hospitals across USA to provide IM programs. There is likely no scientific fact that the likes of acupuncture can cure epilepsy. In addition many hospitals provide similar treatment with homeopathic treatment. It is difficult to verify if these treatments actually work since there are no scientific proof. However, many hospitals are jumping into the bandwagon as patients are demanding IM programs besides western medicine.
Disclaimer: The answer is in reference to the article “Hop on the IM bandwagon” on the website of Science Based Medicine. The article is publicly available
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