An annotated bibliography is a document containing selected sources accompanied

Question

An annotated bibliography is a document containing selected sources accompanied by a respective annotation of each source. In preparation for your own future research, an annotated bibliography provides a background for understanding a portion of the existing literature on a particular topic. It is also a useful first step in gathering sources in preparation for writing a subsequent literature review as part of a dissertation.

Please review the assignment instructions below and click on the underlined works for information about how to craft each component of an annotation.

Annotate one qualitative research article from a peer-reviewed journal on PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Provide the reference list entry for this article in APA Style followed by a three-paragraph annotation that includes:

o    A summary

o    An analysis

o    An application as illustrated in this example

o Format your annotation in Times New Roman, 12-point font, double-spaced. A separate References list page is not needed for this assignment.

Explanation / Answer

Summary

Psychological Disorders (also referred to as mental illness, mental disorders, or psychiatric disorder) are a pattern of thought or behaviour that is outside the expected norms and impairs an individual’s ability function in ordinary life in some way. Such disorders are generally defined by examining how a person feels, acts, thinks or perceives. These disorders are just one part of mental health, but they are an important part.

The causes of psychological disorders are varied and in some cases unclear. The theories often incorporate findings from a range of fields. Assessments are carried out by psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, and clinical social workers, using various methods which rely on observation and questioning.

Clinical treatments are provided by various mental health professionals. psychotherapy and psychiatric medication are two major treatment options, as are social interventions, peer support, and self-help. In a minority of cases, there might be involuntary detention or involuntary treatment, where legally allowed and necessary. stigma and discrimination often add to the suffering and disability associated with mental disorders (or with being diagnosed or judged as having a mental disorder), leading to various social movements attempting to increase understanding and challenge social exclusion. Prevention is now appearing in some mental health strategies.

An analysis

The latest edition of the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic manual, the DSM-5, defines a mental disorder as:

"...a syndrome characterized by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognitive, emotion regulation, or behaviour that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental process underlying mental functioning. Mental disorders are usually associated with significant distress in social, occupational, or other important activities."

The DSM-5 also notes that expected responses to a common stressor such as the death of a loved one are not considered mental disorders. The diagnostic manual also suggests that behaviours that are often considered at odds with social norms are not considered disorders unless these actions are the result of some dysfunction.

How are Psychological Disorders Diagnosed?

The classification and diagnosis is an important concern for both mental health providers and mental health clients. While there is no single, definitive definition of mental disorders, some different classification and diagnostic criteria have emerged. Clinicians utilize the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), published by the American Psychiatric Association, to determine whether a set of symptoms or behaviours meets the criteria for diagnosis as a psychological disorder. The International Classification of Diseases, published by the World Health Organization, is also frequently used.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is used by clinicians and psychiatrists to diagnose psychiatric illnesses. In 2013, a new version known as the DSM-5 was released. The DSM is published by the American Psychiatric Association and covers all categories of mental health disorders for both adults and children. The DSM is utilized widely in the United States for psychiatric diagnosis, treatment recommendations and insurance coverage purposes.

The manual is non-theoretical and focused mostly on describing symptoms as well as statistics concerning which gender is most affected by the illness, the typical age of onset, the effects of treatment and common treatment approaches.

The newest version of the DSM was published in May of 2013. The revision was met with considerable discussion and some controversy.

A major issue with the DSM has been around validity. In response to this, the NIMH has launched the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) project to transform diagnosis by incorporating genetics, imaging, cognitive science and other levels of information to lay the foundation for a new classification system they feel will be more biologically based.

Later, NIMH director Thomas R. Insel issued a statement in conjunction with American Psychiatric Association president Jeffrey A. Lieberman noting that the DSM-5 "...represents the best information currently available for clinical diagnosis of mental disorders." The statement went on to suggest that the DSM-5 and NIMH’s own system, the Research Domain Criteria (or RDoC), represent "complementary, not competing, frameworks" for the classification of mental disorders.

What Is the Purpose of Getting a Diagnosis?

While some people may avoid seeking a diagnosis out of fear of social stigma, getting a diagnosis is an essential part of finding an effective treatment plan. A diagnosis is not about applying a label to a problem; it is about discovering solutions, treatments, and information related to the problem.

How Prevalent Are Psychological Disorders?

Relatively recent research has revealed that psychological disorders are far more widespread than previously believed. According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), approximately 26 percent of American adults over the age of 18 suffer from some diagnosable mental disorder in a given year.

The 1994 National Comorbidity Survey (NCS) indicated that 30 percent of respondents had experienced symptoms of at least one psychological disorder in the previous year. The survey also showed that nearly half of all adults experience some form of mental disorder at some point in their life.

The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) estimates that in 2014 there were approximately 9.8 million adults in the U.S. with a serious mental illness. NIMH defines serious mental illness as a mental, behavioural or emotional disorder diagnosable within the past year that meets diagnostic criteria specified by the DSM-IV. These disorders must also lead to serious impairment in functioning that limits or interferes with one or more major life activities.

A 2005 study replicated the National Comorbidity Survey and found that 12-month prevalence rates were approximately 26 percent among U.S. adults. Anxiety disorders represented the most common psychological disorders (18.1 percent), with mood disorders (9.5 percent), impulse control (8.9 percent) and substance-related disorders (3.8 percent) following.

What Are the Different Types of Mental Disorders?

The DSM describes approximately 150 different psychological disorders, as well as disorders that fall under a category of similar or related disorder subtypes. Some of the prominent diagnostic categories include eating disorders, mood disorders, somatoform disorders, sleep disorders, anxiety disorders and personality disorders.

What Is an Eating Disorder?

Eating disorders are conditions that involve extreme food and weight issues and cause serious emotional and physical distress.

Eating disorders represent a preoccupation with body weight, food intake, shape and/or diet. Typically, if you have an eating disorder, you'll have unhealthy eating behaviour. This may include extreme and unhealthy reduction of the amount of food you eat, or you may severely overeat.You likely also feel bad about your eating habits, body shape, weight, or all three.

Why Do They Occur?

There are many factors that affect how and why we eat, including appetite, food availability, family, friends, cultural practices and your own efforts to control your eating. Mental health professionals still don't know exactly why some people move beyond normal eating behaviour. We do know that this is a complex process and there are usually a variety of factors involved, including genetics, environment, potential peer pressure and emotional health. We also know that eating disorders are not due to a failure of will or behaviour. They are, on the other hand, real medical illnesses that are diagnosable and treatable.

Who Gets Eating Disorders?

Eating disorders can affect anyone, regardless of age, weight, gender, or race. We tend to associate them with women, and it's true that females are much more likely than males to develop eating disorders, but men can and do deal with them as well.

The National Alliance on Mental Illness estimates that 1 in 20 people will deal with an eating disorder at some point in their lives.

Most Common Eating Disorders

The main types of eating disorders are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder.

Anorexia is characterized by starving oneself and an obsession with weight loss.The person may also engage in extreme exercise or binging and purging behaviours. Anorexia sufferers are very thin and the physical toll of their behaviour can become extreme and even lead to death.

Bulimia nervosa is characterized by eating large amounts of food at once and then either vomiting, excessively exercising or taking a laxative to purge oneself of the calories from the food. Bulimia sufferers are often of average weight or even a little overweight. This disorder also takes a physical toll and can also lead to death.

Binge-eating disorder is when a person loses control and engages in eating a large amount of food over a short period of time, even when they are not hungry or may even be full. This behaviour causes serious mental distress and feelings of guilt, shame and disgust.

When Do They Start?

Most often, eating disorders develop during the teenage years or early adulthood. More and more, there are reports of eating disorders developing even in elementary school-age children and adults.

Effect on Health

Eating disorders frequently show up alongside other mental health issues, such as depression, alcohol or drug abuse and anxiety disorders. People who suffer from eating disorders also risk serious, and sometimes fatal, health complications, including serious heart conditions and kidney failure. This is why it's particularly important for eating disorders to be recognized, diagnosed and treated.

Treatment

There is help for eating disorders. The specific treatment plan will depend on the individual, as well as the specific diagnosed eating disorder, but in general, psychotherapy, medications, such as antidepressants or anti-anxiety medications, and/or nutritional counselling are effective ways to manage symptoms.

If you think you may have an eating disorder, be sure to see your physician as soon as possible to get help. The earlier you can get treatment, the better your recovery will be.

A mood disorder also referred to as an affective disorder, is a condition that impacts mood and its related functions. If you are struggling with a mood disorder, your moods may range from extremely low (depressed) to extremely high or irritable (manic).

Impact on Life

Mood disorders can lead to changes in sleeping and eating patterns. Some people, especially children, may have physical symptoms of depression, like unexplained headaches or stomachaches.

The various types of mood disorders, however, and they can have very different effects on your lifestyle.

Classifications of Mood Disorders

With the most recent update of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V), mood disorders are now separated into bipolar disorder and depressive disorders.

There are three new depressive disorders included in the DSM-V:

The number of bipolar disorders remains the same. They are:

The criteria for episodes of mania, hypomania, and major depression remain the same. Mood disorders should be properly evaluated and treated by a trained professional.

Personality disorders are psychiatric conditions that begin in adolescence or early adulthood, continue over many years, and cause a great deal of distress. Personality disorders also often interfere with your ability to enjoy life or achieve fulfilment in relationships, work or school.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) lists ten personality disorders, including borderline personality disorder (BPD).

Diagnosis

The DSM-IV-TR used a "multi-axial" diagnostic system. This means that when a diagnosis was made using DSM-IV, attention was paid to five different areas, or axes, that may have affected the individual being diagnosed.

Personality disorders were diagnosed on Axis II of the multi-axial system. This axis is reserved for very long-standing conditions of clinical significance. Mental retardation is the only other condition that was diagnosed on Axis II.

In DSM-5. the most recent version, there are no axes.

Clusters

Personality disorders are organized into three "clusters" in both the DSM-IV-TR and DSM-5. The disorders in each cluster share key features or have overlap in terms of the characteristics of individuals who are diagnosed within that cluster.

'Cluster A'

The "Cluster A" personality disorders are characterized by odd or eccentric behaviour. Individuals with the personality disorders in this cluster tend to experience major disruptions in relationships because their behaviour may be perceived as peculiar, suspicious or detached.

The "Cluster A" personality disorders include:

'Cluster B'

The "Cluster B" personality disorders are characterized by dramatic or erratic behaviour. Individuals with the personality disorders in this cluster tend to either experience very intense emotions or engage in extremely impulsive, theatrical, promiscuous or law-breaking behaviours.

The "Cluster B" personality disorders include:

'Cluster C'

The "Cluster C" personality disorders are characterized by anxiety. Individuals with the personality disorders in this cluster tend to experience pervasive anxiety and/or fearfulness.

The "Cluster C" personality disorders include:

Treatment

Compared to mood disorders, there is remarkably little research on the treatment of personality disorders. Most of the research that exists focuses on the treatment of BPD. For BPD, there are a number of treatments that are considered effective in reducing symptoms, including psychotherapy and medication options.

In general, many experts believe that personality disorders are difficult to treat because they are, by definition, long-standing patterns of personality. That said, this is a question that has not been subjected to a great deal of careful research. More research is needed to examine the effectiveness of treatments for the personality disorders.

However, recent research has shown that borderline personality disorder is easier to treat than previously thought and that many people improve with continued treatment.

Comorbidity

There is a great deal of comorbidity between the personality disorders, meaning that a person who meets diagnostic criteria for one personality disorder will often also meet criteria for one or more additional personality disorders. One recent study funded by the National Institute of Mental Health found that about 85% of people with BPD also meet diagnostic criteria for at least one other personality or mood disorder.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Highlights of changes from DSM-IV-TR to DSM-5. American Psychiatric Publishing.

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

National Institute of Mental Health. Eating Disorders: Facts About Eating Disorders and the Search for Solutions. 2006 NIH Publication No. 01-4901.

"Highlights of Changes from DSM-IV-TR to DSM-5." American Psychiatric Association.

"DSM-5 and Psychotic and Mood Disorders." George F. Parker, MD. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law42:182–90, 2014

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR Fourth Edition. American Psychiatric Association: 2000.

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