((what is your opinion in this task)) The US Constitution is a record that is fo
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((what is your opinion in this task))
The US Constitution is a record that is foremost in guiding the framing of information policy. As the meaning of information varies significantly between contrasting bodies and such an idea is not characterized in the Constitution itself, the Federal government has received a definition that utilizes data itself as a medium of business (interstate trade), in this way giving it the apparent right to legislate and make approach as to Internet technology (and the employment of most information) as a medium of business.
At the point when taking a gander at the internet and information technology in an encircling that varies from the business viewpoint, it can turn out to be particularly risky when attempting to address the privileges of individuals on the internet. The issue of business can rapidly get to be conflated with privileges of people when taking a gander at issues in information policy, making the whole branch of knowledge particularly hard to address.
Explanation / Answer
Information Policy:-
Information policy is the set of all public laws, regulations and policies that encourage, discourage, or regulate the creation, use, storage, access, and communication and dissemination of information.[1] It thus encompasses any other decision-making practice with society-wide constitutive efforts that involve the flow of information and how it is processed.
There are several fundamental issues that comprise information policy. Most prominent are public policy issues concerned with the use of information for democratization and commercialization of social life. These issues include, inter alia, digital environment, such as intellectual property, economic regulations, freedom of expression, confidentiality or privacy of information, information security, access management, and regulating how the dissemination of public information occurs.
Information policy determines the kind of information collected, created, organized, stored, accessed, disseminated and retained. Who can use the information, whether there will be charges for access, and the amount charged, is also covered. Usually associated with government information, information policy also establishes the rules within which private information providers and the media operate. Information policy includes the following areas:
INFORMATION SECURITY LAWS & REGULATIONS:-
A. Federal Information Security Management Act :-
The Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA) of 2002, which was passed as TITLE X of The Homeland Security Act (signed into law on November 27, 2002) replaced GISRA and repealed The Computer Security Act Section 11332 of Title 40, United States Code. FISMA provides a framework to ensure the security controls used to protect the federal assets are effective and grants more responsibility to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to develop and maintain standards for minimum information security controls. Compliance with the standards is mandatory.
B. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996:-
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), Public Law 104-191, August 21, 1996. The final rule for HIPAA became effective February 26, 2001. HIPAA outlines that health care systems must establish national standards for the protection of an individual’s health information that is privacy related data. The standards should also improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the health care systems electronic exchange of information between organizations/systems. Additionally, the standards will ease the growing concerns of the public regarding the protection of personal medical information.
C. Office of Management and Budget Circular A-130:-
Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-130, Appendix III calls for a management authorization for major applications and general support systems to process information. That authorization is based on an assessment of the management, operational, and technical controls put in place to protect an organizations information technology resources. The resources assessed include the hardware, software, data, and people that are part of the business processes supporting the organization’s mission(s). The authorization by the management official should occur at least every three years or whenever a major modification of the application or system happens.
Other laws and regulations that may be applicable to an organization and may provide requirements for their information security program are identified below. While this list is not all-inclusive, it does provide a good reference library to establish a requirements matrix.
U.S. Privacy Act, 1974 (as Amended)
U.S. Electronic Communications Privacy Act, October 1986
U.S. Computer Abuse Amendments Act, January 1995
U.S. Economic and Protection of Proprietary Information Act,October 1996
U.S. Kennedy- Kassenbaum Health Insurance and Portability Accountability Act (HIPAA) , October 2002
U.S. National Information Infrastructure Protection Act, October 1996
Telecommunications Act of 1996(Clinger-Cohen Act of 1996)
Information policy became a prominent field of study during the latter half of the 20th century as the shift from an industrial to an information society transpired.It has since then evolved from being seen as relatively unimportant to having a much more overarching strategic significance since it establishes the conditions “under which all other decision making, public discourse, and political activity occur.”The growing awareness in the importance of information policy has sparked an interest in various groups to further study and analyze its magnitude. The most common audience for information policy analysis includes undergraduate and graduate students, scholars, policymakers, policy analysts, as well as those members of the public who have taken an interest in understanding the effects of the laws and regulations involving information.
Although information policy generally has a broader definition and encapsulates a multitude of components, its scope and impact can vary depending on the context. For example, in the context of an information lifecycle, information policy refers to the laws and policies that deal with the stages information goes through beginning with its creation, through its collection, organization, dissemination, and finally to its destruction.On the other hand, in the context of public administration, information policy is the means by which government employees, institutions, and information systems adapt themselves to an environment in rapid fluctuation and use information for decision-making (e.g., Andersen and Dawes, 1991; also see Bozeman and Bretschneider, 1986, and Stevens and McGowan, 1985). One can see how these two contexts offer varying scopes for the phrase “ information policy.”
Information policy is in fact, a combination of several varying disciplines including information science, economics, law, and public policy.Thus, its scope may differ when each of these disciplines analyses or uses it. The information sciences may be more concerned with technical advances and how this impacts information policy, while from a law perspective, issues such as privacy rights and intellectual property may be of greatest focus.
Types and importance:
The types of information policy can be separated into two different categories. It can be discussed in the short-term focus exclusively on information science. It can also have a much broader context in relation to different subjects and be within a larger time period, for example dating back to Roman civilization, the Bill of Rights, or the Constitution.
The obvious reason for the need of information policy deals with the legal issues that can be associated with the advancement of technology. More precisely, — the digitization of the cultural content made the cost of the copy decreasing to nearly zero and increased the illegal exchange of files, online, via sharing web site or P2P technologies, or off line (copy of hard disks). As a result, there are many grey areas between what users can and cannot do, and this creates the need for some sort of regulation. Today, this has led to the creation of SOPA (Stop Online Piracy Act). Information policy will mark the boundaries needed to evaluate certain issues dealing with the creation, processing, exchange, access, and use of information.
Issues:-
There are some issues around organizational information polices,which are the interaction between human beings and technology for using information, the issue to proceed information policy itself, whether to-down or middle-up-down, is the best way to approach information policy in an organization. Also, issues that information is tend to be influenced by organization’s culture that resulted in complexity of information flow. Moreover, the concern about valuing information is discussed by Orna, the fact that value of information is depend on the user, and it can’t be measured by price. Considering that information is as assets or intellectual capital that become valuable when it is put in the productive ways.
Convergence:
Convergence essentially combines all forms of media, telecommunications, broadcasting, and computing by the use of a single technology: digital computers.It integrates diverse technological systems in the hopes of improving performance of similar tasks. Convergence is thought to be the result of the need for expansion into new markets due to competition and technological advances that have created a threat of new entrants into various segments of the value chain.As a result, previously disparate technologies interact with one other synergistically to deliver information in new and unique ways and allow for inventive solutions to be developed.
Nearly every innovative trend in the social industry involves adding data or layers of connectivity.Social networking sites have begun interacting with e-mail functionalities, search engines have begun integrating Internet searches with Facebook data, Twitter along with various other social media platforms have started to play a prominent role in the emergency management framework (mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery) among several others.
In 2012 a prominent issue arose that deals with the convergence of social media with copyright infringement monitoring systems.The growing interest in this topic can be largely attributed to the recent anti-piracy bills: the Stop Online Piracy Act and the PROTECT IP Act. Various officials from all over the world have expressed an interest in forcing social networks to install and utilize monitoring systems to determine if users are illegally obtaining copyrighted material.For example, if implemented, these filters could prevent the illegal sharing of music over social networking platforms. The convergence of search engines and social networks could make this process even easier. Search engines such as Google, Yahoo, and Bing have begun to merge with social media platforms to link Internet searches to your social networking sites such as Facebook.This poses an even greater threat to users since their Internet searches can be monitored via their social networks.
The issue of converging social networks with piracy monitoring systems becomes controversial when it comes to protecting personal data and abiding by privacy laws. In order for a synergy such as this one to take place, regulatory convergence would need to be considered. Regulatory convergence is the merging of previously disparate industry-based laws and regulations into a single legal and regulatory framework.
Internet governance:-
Internet governance has both narrow and broad definitions, thus, making it a complex concept to understand. When most people think of Internet governance, they think of the regulations of the content and conduct that are communicated and acted on through the Internet. Although this is certainly a broad component of Internet governance, additionally, there are more narrow elements to the definition that are often overlooked. Internet governance also encompasses the regulation of Internet infrastructure and the processes, systems, and institutions that regulate the fundamental systems that determine the capabilities of the Internet.
Architecture is the foundation of the Internet. The fundamental goal of the Internet architecture is to essentially create a network of networks by interconnecting various computer network systems globally.Protocols such as TCP/IP as well as other network protocols serve as the rules and conventions by which computers can communicate with each other. Thus, TCP/IP is often viewed as the most important institution of Internet governance.It serves as the backbone to network connectivity.
Organizations such as the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) coordinate the various systems within the Internet on a global level to help preserve the operational stability of the Internet.For example, coordination of IP addresses and managing the Domain Name System (DNS) ensure computers and devices can correctly connect to the Internet and can communicate effectively globally. If regulation of these crucial elements of the Internet such as TCP/IP and DNS were governed by disparate principles, the Internet would no longer exist as it does today. Networks, computers, and peripherals would not be able to communicate and have the same accessibility if these foundational elements varied.
Government roles:-
Like with any policy, there needs to be an agent to govern and regulate it. With information policy in a broader sense, the government has several roles and responsibilities. Some examples include providing accurate information, producing and maintaining information that meets the specific needs of the public, protecting the privacy and confidentiality of personal and sensitive information, and making informed decisions on which information should be disseminated and how to distribute it effectively, among others.Although the government plays an active role in information policy, the analysis of information policy should not only include the formal decision making processes by government entities, but also the formal and informal decisions of both the private and public sector of governance.
Security vs freedom of information:-
A persistent debate concerning the government role in information policy is the separation of security and freedom of information. Legislation such as the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USAPATRIOT or USAPA) Act of 2001 is an example of security taking precedence over civil liberties. The USAPA affected several surveillance and privacy laws to include:
The USAPA was passed in October 2001, not long after 9/11 and without much contention from congress. Civil liberties advocates argue that the changes made to the standing surveillance laws were done in an abrupt manner and without consideration to basic rights as outlined in the US constitution, specifically fourth amendment rights which protects against unreasonable search and seizure.
Research methods and tools:-
The five broad methodological strands that Rowlands (1996) identified are current tools for information policy study:
Classification: The tool demonstrates a wide range of issues and subjects on information policy. It helps research to understand the breadth of the subject. The published materials are reasonably well documented and described. It is also good for start-up literature review and research purposes.
Identification of policy issues and options: This tool relies on inputs for information; for example, interviews and questionnaires targeting policy makers and other stakeholders. It is a commonly used in the studies of on-the-job policy makers in government or industry (Moore and Steele, 1991; McIntosh, 1990; Rowlands, 1997).
Reductionism: The reductionist approach control factors to reduce ambiguity. The factors include constraining data collection, analysis and interpretation within the framework of a specific discipline. It helps researchers to notice how a specific factor relates to the overall environment.
Forecasting and scenario-building: The commonly used model is STEEP framework. It helps in reducing uncertainties for a topic that is under studies.
Process-oriented research and cases studies: It provides detailed contextual analyses of particular events. It helps researcher to experience the policy process in semi-real situation and study its outcome.
The future - where information policy is headed:-
In regards to the future of information policy, it should be flexible and changing to different circumstances as the ability to access, store, and share information grows.Galvin suggests that information policy might include setting a boundary to the uncertainty in this field. As information policy becomes a larger and more important topic, it will also become a greater subject to governmental regulation in regards to the future of technology as well.It will also include the studies of these subjects: information science, communications, library science, and technology studies.
The information policies will earn more advantages for national and organizational, such as getting the best from development of Web 2.0 nationally and in organization, influence people for paying attention to the socio aspect and socio-technical system, for securing preservation of digital content, bringing out information product, also respecting all users and making thinking time respectable.
In order to achieve this national organization, it will be important to focus not only on a domestic level but also nationally. Making domestic agencies cooperate internationally (and vice versa) though, will not be overly successful. A single nation can take the lead in establishing communication-based relationships specifically regarding the internet. These relations will need to be slowly and consistently established in order to truly unify any kind of information policy and decision-making. If information policy can be established and guided on a semi-national level, the degree of communication and cooperation throughout the world will increase dramatically. As information policy continues to shape many aspects of society, these international relations will become vital (Harpham, 2011).
Information policy is playing a greater role in the economy leading to the production of goods and services, as well as selling them directly to consumers (UCLA, 2009). The cost of information varies from a tangible good in that initial costs of the first unit are large and fixed; however, after that, marginal costs are relatively low (MacInnes, 2011). As an increase from the information services, information can be paralleled to that of manufacturing several years ago (UCLA, 2009). The digitalization of information allows businesses to make better justified business decisions (MacInnes, 2011).
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