Explain what are the \" Police powers of the state\" and what they allow the sta

Question

Explain what are the " Police powers of the state" and what they allow the state(i.e. government) to do. Explain what an emission standard is and what a technology standard is, and how they are used or set as an exercise of police powers. Describe why technology standards (1) eliminate any incentive for technology advance or improvement and (2) cause total social abatement cost for the same level of environmental quality or abatement to be higher than the minimum cost. Describe why a cap and trade or permit system based upon emission standards. (1) Provide an incentive for technological advance or improvement and (2) cause total social abatement cost for the same level of environmental quality or abatement to be closer to the minimum cost. (Hint: What are the cost of technological advance, and what are the benefits of technological advance).

Explanation / Answer

An odds ratio (OR) is a measure of association between an exposure and an outcome. The OR represents the odds that an outcome will occur given a particular exposure, compared to the odds of the outcome occurring in the absence of that exposure. It is quantifies the relationship between an exposure with two categories and health outcome.

Odds Ratio = ad/bc

Where,

a = number of persons exposed and with disease

b = number of persons exposed but without disease

c = number of persons unexposed but with disease

d = number of persons unexposed: and without disease

a+c = total number of persons with disease (case-patients)

b+d = total number of persons without disease (controls)

The odds ratio is sometimes called the cross-product ratio because the numerator is based on multiplying the value in cell "a" times the value in cell "d," whereas the denominator is the product of cell "b" and cell "c." A line from cell "a" to cell "d" (for the numerator) and another from cell "b" to cell "c" (for the denominator) creates an x or cross on the two-by-two table.

OR=1 Exposure does not affect odds of outcome

OR>1 Exposure associated with higher odds of outcome

OR<1 Exposure associated with lower odds of n outcome

A risk ratio (RR), also called relative risk, compares the risk of a health event (disease, injury, risk factor, or death) among one group with the risk among another group. It does so by dividing the risk (incidence proportion, attack rate) in group 1 by the risk (incidence proportion, attack rate) in group 2. The two groups are typically differentiated by such demographic factors as sex (e.g., males versus females) or by exposure to a suspected risk factor (e.g., did or did not eat potato salad). Often, the group of primary interest is labeled the exposed group, and the comparison group is labeled the unexposed group.

Formula used for finding risk Ratio is

The formula for risk ratio (RR) is:

Risk of disease (incidence proportion, attack rate) in group of primary interest [divided by] Risk of disease (incidence proportion, attack rate) in comparison group.

A risk ratio equals to 1.0 indicates identical risk among the two groups.

A risk ratio greater than 1.0 indicates an increased risk for the group in the numerator, usually the exposed group.

A risk ratio less than 1.0 indicates a decreased risk for the exposed group, indicating that perhaps exposure actually protects against disease occurrence.

The direct computation of relative risks is feasible if meaningful prevalences or incidences are available. Cross-sectional data may serve to calculate relative risks from prevalences.

Cohortstudy designs allow for the direct calculation of relative risks from incidences.

The situation is more complicated for casecontrol studies. If meaningful prevalences or incidences are not available, the Odds Ratios provides a valid effect measure: It describes the ratio of disease odds given exposure status, or alternatively the ratio of exposure odds given the disease status., both approaches lead to the same result. But the OR for a given exposure is obtained within logistic models while controlling confounders.

advantages of odds ratio

1) The odds ratio compares the relative odds of death in

each group.

2) Odds ratio use in log logistic regression analysis.

Disadvantage of odd ratio :

1) Difficult to interpret.

2) Can't use everywhere.

Advantages of Risk ratio:

1) Easier to interpret as compared to odds ratio.

2) Relative risk can be used very easily in case control study.

Disadvantages of Risk Ratio:

Relative risk can sometimes produce ambiguous and con-

fusing situations.

Please Note: This is from my notes which I made during my graduation. I hope it may help you. Thank you!

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