Will anyone read my essay on mycology. Give some feedback and help change things
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Will anyone read my essay on mycology. Give some feedback and help change things around to sound more intelligent and make sentences flow better? I have a really hard time with essays.
The importance of fungi ecologically and economically as symbiotic organisms, as a source of antibiotics, as a source of food, as pests, pathogens and producers of certain chemicals and toxins.
symbiotic organisms
Fungi do not live in solitude, instead they interact with other species forming one of three symbiotic relationships (Kendrick, 2011):
mutualism — where both species benefit from the association.
commensalism — where one species benefits and the other is unaffected.
parasitism — where one species benefits and the other is harmed [4].
In many instances, the symbiotic association between a species and fungi provide important information for ecological and economical interests [4].
Ecological importance
Although extremely important to the biosphere, fungi can be detrimental to certain ecosystems [4]. Dutch elm disease, caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi (a fungi belonging to the class: ascomycetes), is a prominent example of such fungi [4]. At one time, Dutch elm tress were commonly found in the Unites States, North America and new Zealand (Sace, 2010). Now most of them have been wiped as a result of this disease. The process beings with a commenalistic relationship between the fungi and bark beetles; small, black insects that feed on the cambium layer of elm trees [8]. The fungus is excreted on the eggs and larvae of the beetles and as they mature into adulthood, they carry fungal spores either on their exoskeleton or in their gut [8]. When the beetles are ready to feed, they burrow into the inner layers of the tree, spreading the fungal spores with them [8]. The spores germinate and soon after a parasitic relationship with the wood of the tree ensues [8]. The fungus strips the tree of its nutrients and utilizes its resources to thrive [8]. In an attempt stop the fungus from spreading further, the tree reacts by plugging its xylem cells with gum and therefore nutrients are unable to travel up its trunk and the tree eventually dies [8]. The cycle repeats itself as the fungal infected beetles move to their next host [8].
Some fungi on the other hand, form beneficial relationships with their hosts such as lichens; the crusty, hard growths that may be seen on logs, rocks and trees [5]. A lichen is the result of a mutually beneficial association between fungi and algae [5]. Unlike fungi, algae are able to manufacture their own food through the process of photosynthesis [5]. This is very useful to the fungi as it harvests the sugars as a food source [5]. In turn, the fungus provides an acceptable habitat for the algae which greatly extends the range of environments it is able to live in [5]. Lichens are ecologically beneficial in many ways [8]. In addition to offering beautifully coloured aesthetics to the ecosystems in which they occur, they provide food for animals that live in northern regions such as caribou and reindeer, where few plants grow [8]. They are also useful indicators of air quality [8]. Lichens tend to grow abundantly in places with clean air, but when sulphur dioxide in present, lichens do not grow [8].
Economical Importance
Economically, Humans are heavily dependant on plants (Gally, 2012). Either directly or indirectly, plants are responsible for all of our food sources and many profitable products such as cigarettes, wine, beer, medication and more [2]. It is thus, greatly important to maintain successful crop species in agriculture [2].
Uncinula necator is a parasitic fungi that causes powdery mildew on grapes, which may wipe-out large portions of crops grown for the purpose of producing wine [2]. This fungi leaches nutrients from the plant by developing a specialized organ called the haustorium; a hyphael extension that penetrates into the tissue of the host plant (Kendrick, 2000). As a result, a white powdery substance develops on the surface of leaves [5]. Eventually the leaves dry out and drop off. Sometime after, the berries follow suit as they crack and shrivel [5]. This disease can result in the loss of large profit. Other damaging diseases that are caused by fungus include, wheat rust, blue mould of tobacco and southern corn blight [5].
Not all fungi are harmful to economically important agriculture [5]. In fact, many crop species have only able been able to survive because of the intimate alliance they have formed with fungi and their roots [5]. The mutualistic symbiosis of a fungus and the roots of a vascular plants is known as a mycorrhiza [2]. Though plants are able to photosynthesize effectively, some of them lack a sufficient root system and become deficient in the water and minerals they need to survive [2]. Mycorrhizal plants are able to combat this issue by using the their long hyphael extensions to permeate large volumes of soil and obtain vital resources the plant needs to grow [2]. In exchange for the nutrients it provides, the plant delivers photosynthates to the fungus [2]. Mycorrhizal plants are able to survive in low nutrient soil and have become equipped to withstand acid-rain and heavy metal pollution, higher soil temperatures, higher soil salinity and soil-borne diseases [2].
antibiotics
Often times, fungi are thought of as harmful, disease-causing organisms, however, they are greatly important to human life [1]. Some fungi make extremely crucial contributions to managing human illnesses as they are used in the manufacturing of certain antibiotics [1]. The fungus, penicillium chrysogenum for instance, was purified to produce one of today’s most widely used antibiotics, penicillin [5]. It was first discovered in 1927 by Sir Alexander Fleming who would later go on to receive a Nobel prize for his findings [5]. He grew pure colonies of bacterium on plates of culture medium when he noticed one plate became contaminated by penicillium chrysogenum [5]. After a period of time, he discovered a zone of inhibition surrounding the fungal colony and found that the fungus was responsible to killing or inhibiting the growth of the bacterium [5]. In 1942, Penicillin was put to medical use for the first time in the treatment of a Streptococcus infection and has now since revolutionized the medical care of bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases [5]. Formally fatal pathogenic-related sicknesses have now become curable and new forms of treatment are possible [1].
Constant modification of fungal derived antibiotics are being made [1]. Unless the search for new antibiotics continues, and the fabrication of new, tailor made stands is successful, it is possible that the use of antibiotics will become less meaningful as time moves forward [1]. Many penicillin-resistant strands of pathogenic bacteria, such as methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus, are begining to cause alarming problems in hospitals as they are very difficult to eradicate [5]. It will take large investments of time and money to keep one step ahead of microbial diseases, but the future looks promising [5]. The vast majority of existing fungi have not yet been discovered, among those have yet to be examined for their pharmaceutical potential. Current fungal derived antibiotics besides penicillin include [5]:
Griseofulvin — used against mycosis.
Cephalosporin — used against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Jawaharene —used against the flu, small pox, etc.
Clavicin — used against fungal diseases [5].
Food source
Fungi are commonly used as a food source or as producers of certain food products [5]. A variety of mushrooms make tasty, nutritional additions to meals, with their fleshy body and pleasant flavours and aroma’s [3]. There are about 200 species of fungi that are edible including, puff balls, morels, oyster mushrooms and many more [3]. They are a rich source of vitamins and some are very high in protein [3]. Certain species are even regarded as delicacies and can be very expensive [3]. Some common mushrooms are commercially cultivated and others are harvested in the wild. Particular precaution should be taken when picking edible fungi [3]. Some fatally poisonous mushrooms mimic safe-to-eat one’s (Louis,2004). If eaten, poisonous mushrooms can cause gastrointestinal discomfort, nausea, vomiting and cramps. Severe cases will require hospitalization [3].
Fungi are also responsible for the production of bread, cheese, miso, beer and a variety of other food products [3]. Although the sight of mould on food is regarded as a sign of contamination, their visual presence on specific foods are very much apart of their product. Particularity on cheese [3]. Among the most popular commercial cheeses are brie, camembert, blue, cheese [3]. The manufacturing of cheese has believed to have started almost 4000 years ago [5]. Fungi form a dense mycelial mat on the outside of the product and as their enzymes diffuse inward, the fungi digest milk proteins giving the cheese a soft, smooth, buttery consistency [5]. Cheese and other products produced with the help of fungi are very profitable and economically significant [5].
Pests
The destructive properties of some fungi have allowed them to become regarded as troublesome, undesirable pests (Forlm, 2006). About 150 years ago, the cause of plant diseases was unknown and went untreated until the first practicle fungicide was created forty years later [5]. Even today, more than a third of crop losses are due to fungal invaders [5]. Unprotected orchards are susceptible to diseases such as, potato blight, black spot of rose, and apple scab [5]. They may not produce saleable fruit at all if affected by fungi, so the use of fungicides have become an essential part of agriculture and home gardening [5].
A blend of copper sulphate and calcium hydroxide was the first fungicide to solve the pesky fungal problem [6]. This cocktail became famous as the bordeaux mixture, which acted as a protecting seal to plant species. If the plant’s exterior was not sufficiently coated, the fungus would travel through the unprotected spaces and reek havoc on the crop [5]. Years later, a new generation of ecologically safer fungicides came about, the organo-mercurials [6]. Further modification of fungicides would produce Benomyl, organo-tin, Fosetyl-Al and more [5].
Pathogens
Pathogenic fungi exist as the cause of numerous human diseases [5]. In fact, 40% of all deaths from hospital-acquired infections in the late 1980’s were due to fungi (Niger, 2012). Fungal attacks can be divided in to four general categories: 1) Cutaneous infections which involve the outer lays of the skin, 2) subcutaneous infection, involving fungi which have been introduced through tissue by a wound or open legion; and 3) systemic infections which infects the hosts entire body. Among the three systemic infections tend to be of the highest concern [5].
Pathogenic systemic infections can be produced by an array of fungal species including as H. caapsulatum, C.immitis, and b. dermatitis [5]. All of them grow optimally of body temperature. The primary loacation of infection for some of these species is the lungs, provoking ulcerations of the mucosa of the mouth and nose which often cause loss of teeth [5]. The epidemic can easily spread and mimic symptoms of tuberculosis [5].
chemicals and toxins
The use of fungi as chemical and toxic agents have been available for many years [2]. A popular fungi-derived chemical is citric acid, which has been widely used in a number of industries [2]. Citric acid is used in sodas, candies, canned goods, baked goods, etc [2]. It is too costly to isolate citric acid from acidic fruits so instead it is mass produced by Aspergillus niger [2]. Fungi are important in this aspect because they occupy little space, multiply rapidly, and are easily cultured [2].
Cook, A.H & Lacey, M.S (2000). Production of Antibiotics by Fungi.
UpToDate. Retreived from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC52065718/
Gally, Frederick. (2012) The Fascianating World of Fungi: Economics.
UpToDate. Retreived from:
http://www.countrysideinfo.ca.uk/fungi/contents.htm
Ghannoum, Mahmoud A. & Ribe, Louis B. (2004). Antifungal Agents: Mode of Action, Mechanism of Resistance, and Correlation of these Mechanisms with Bacterial Resistance.
UpToDate. Retreived from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmdc/articles/PMC88922/
Kendrick, Brice (2011). Fungi: Ecological importance an Impact on Humans.
UpToDate. Retreived from:
http://www.els.net/WileyaCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0000369.html
Kendrick, Bryce. (1992-2000). The fifth kindom. Focus Publishing, R. Pullins. Pages 158-367.
Kertin, Felicity & forlm, R. (2006). Fungal Root Rots and Chemical Fungicide use.
UpToDate. Retreived from:
http://extension.psu.edu/pests/plant-diseases//all-fact-sheets/fungal-root-rots-and-chemical-fungicide-use
Niger, J (2012). Healthcare — associated infections: A public health Problem.
UpToDate. Retreived from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3530249/
Sace, J. (2010). The importance of fungi and he Role of Fungi in the Eco system.
Scudder Rebacca UpToDate Retrieved from:
http://www.brighthub.com/environment/science-environmental/articles/885005.aspx
Explanation / Answer
Ans.) Ecological and economical importance of fungi as symbiotic organism and as a source of antibiotics, food, pests, pathogens and producers of certain chemicals and toxins
Fungi are placed in a separate kingdom fungi because there diverse character from both the plant and animal. They are non-motile, symbiotic organism and their symbiotic association with other organism can be divided into three categories which are given below;
Mutualism — It is a symbiotic association, where both organism have benefit from the association.
Commensalism — When one organism benefits and the other is unaffected, such relationship ai called as commensalism.
Parasitism — It is non-mutual symbiotic relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host.
In many instances, the symbiotic association between a plant and fungi provide important information for ecological and economical interests
Ecological importance
Albeit critical to the enviroment, fungi have some detrimental effect in ecosystem. Like, in Dutch elm infection, caused by the growth Ophiostoma ulmi (a parasites having a place with the class: ascomycetes). Dutch elm tress which are usually found in the Unites States, North America and new Zealand has a large portion as a consequence of this disease. The commenalistic relationship starts between the fungi and bark beetles; little, dark bugs that eat the cambium layer of elm trees. The growth is discharged on the eggs and hatchlings of the insects and as they develop into adulthood, they convey parasitic spores either on their exoskeleton or in their gut. Eventually, when the beetles are prepared to nourish, they tunnel into the internal layers of the tree, spreading the parasitic spores with them. The spores germinate and after a parasitic association with the wood of the tree results. The growth strips the tree of its supplements and uses its assets to flourish. In this way it prevents the organism from spreading further, the tree responds by stopping its xylem cells with gum and in this manner supplements can't go up its trunk and the tree in the end kicks the bucket. The cycle rehashes itself as the contagious tainted creepy crawlies move to their next host.
In addition, few fungi have gainful associations with their hosts, for example, lichens; the crusty, up, hard developments that might be seen on logs, shakes and trees. Lichen grows as a result of a commonly useful relationship amongst organisms and green growth and they are able to carry out photosynthesis. They provide carbohydrate to thept fungal counterpart as a nourishment source and for this fungus provides them habitat Lichens are environmentally advantageous from multiple points of view. Notwithstanding offering wonderfully hued feel to the biological systems in which they happen, they give sustenance to creatures that live in northern locales, for example, caribou and reindeer, where few plants develop. They are likewise valuable pointers of air quality. Lichens have a tendency to develop copiously in spots with clean air, however when sulfur dioxide in present, lichens don't develop.
Economical Importance
Economically, humans are intensely dependant on plants. Either straightforwardly or in a roundabout way, plants are in charge of the greater part of our sustenance sources and numerous gainful items, for example, cigarettes, wine, brew, drug etc. In this manner, fungi are incredibly critical to keep up effective harvest species in horticulture.
Uncinula necator is a parasitic organism that causes powdery mildew on grapes and wipe-out major part of harvests specially harvested for wine production. This fungus filters supplements from the plant by building up a particular organ called the haustorium; a hyphal mass that infiltrates into the tissue of the host plant (Kendrick, 2000). Therefore, a white fine substance creates on the surface of leaves. At some point after, the berries stick to this same pattern as they break and wither. This disease can bring the loss of expansive benefit. Other harmful diseases that are created by fungus are wheat rust, blue mould of tobacco and southern corn blight.
Not all fungi are hurtful to economically important crops. Many agriculture crop have just capable to survive due to their association with the roots of higher plants. The mutualistic beneficial interaction of a fungus and the roots of a vascular plants is known as a mycorrhiza. In spite of the fact that plants can photosynthesize viably, some of them do not have an adequate root framework and get to be distinctly lacking in the water and minerals they have to survive. Mycorrhizal plants can battle this issue by utilizing their long hyphael augmentations to penetrate huge volumes of soil and acquire imperative assets the plant needs to develop. In return the plant provides their photosynthetic products to the fungi. Mycorrhizal plants can get by in low supplement soil and have turned out to be prepared to withstand corrosive rain and overwhelming metal contamination, higher soil temperatures, higher soil saltiness and soil-borne infections.
Antibiotics
Usually, fungi are considered as harmful, disease causing organism but in other hand they are enormously essential to human life. A few organisms make extremely crucial contributions to treat human diseases as they are utilized as a part of the assembling of specific anti-toxins. The fungus, Penicillium chrysogenum for example, was purified to form one of today's most broadly utilized antibiotic, penicillin. It was initially discoverd in 1927 by Sir Alexander Fleming who received Nobel Prize for his discoveries. He developed pure culture of bacterium on plates of culture medium when he saw one plate got to be contaminatedby Penicillium chrysogenum. After a timeframe, he found a zone of inhibition encompassing the contagious province and found that the parasite was responsible for killing and inhibiting the growth of the bacterium. In 1942, Penicillin was applied for the treatment of a Streptococcus contamination for the first time and has now since reformed the restorative care of bacterial, parasitic, and viral infections. Formally deadly pathogenic-related afflictions have now turned out to be reparable and new types of treatment are conceivable.
Name of several fungal derived antibiotics are given beloe;
Food source
Fungi are commonly used as a food source or as producers of certain food products. A variety of mushrooms make tasty, nutritional additions to meals, with their fleshy body and pleasant flavours and aroma. There are about 200 species of fungi that are edible including, puff balls, morels, oyster mushrooms etc. They are a rich source of vitamins and some are very high in protein. Certain species are even regarded as delicacies and can be very expensive. Some common mushrooms are commercially cultivated and others are harvested in the wild. Particular precaution should be taken when picking edible fungi. Some fatally poisonous mushrooms mimic safe-to-eat one’s (Louis,2004). If eaten, poisonous mushrooms can cause gastrointestinal discomfort, nausea, vomiting and cramps. Severe cases will require hospitalization.
Fungi are also responsible for the production of bread, cheese, beer and a variety of other food products. Although the sight of mould on food is regarded as a sign of contamination, their visual presence on specific foods are very much a part of their product. Among the most popular commercial cheeses are brie, camembert, blue, cheese. Fungi form a dense mycelial mat on the outside of the product and as their enzymes diffuse inward, the fungi digest milk proteins giving the cheese a soft, smooth, buttery consistency. Cheese and other products produced with the help of fungi are very profitable and economically significant.
As a pests
The destructive properties of some fungi have allowed them to become regarded as troublesome, undesirable pests (Forlm, 2006). About 150 years ago, the cause of plant diseases was unknown and went untreated until the first practicle fungicide was created forty years later. Even today, more than a third of crop losses are due to fungal invaders. Unprotected orchards are susceptible to diseases such as, potato blight, black spot of rose, and apple scab. They may not produce saleable fruit at all if affected by fungi, so the use of fungicides have become an essential part of agriculture and home gardening.
A blend of copper sulphate and calcium hydroxide was the first fungicide to solve the pesky fungal problem. This cocktail became famous as the bordeaux mixture, which acted as a protecting seal to plant species. If the plant’s exterior was not sufficiently coated, the fungus would travel through the unprotected spaces and reek havoc on the crop.
As Pathogens
Pathogenic fungi exist as the cause of numerous human diseases. In fact, 40% of all deaths from hospital-acquired infections in the late 1980’s were due to fungi (Niger, 2012). Fungal pathogens can be divided in to three general categories:
Pathogenic systemic infections can be produced by an array of fungal species including as H. caapsulatum, C.immitis, and B. dermatitis. All of them grow optimally of body temperature. The primary loacation of infection for some of these species is the lungs, provoking ulcerations of the mucosa of the mouth and nose which often cause loss of teeth. The epidemics can easily spread and mimic symptoms of tuberculosis.
Chemicals and toxins
The use of fungi as chemical and toxic agent has been reported from many years. A popular fungi-derived chemical is citric acid, which has been widely used in a number of industries. Citric acid is used in sodas, candies, canned goods, baked goods, etc. It is too costly to isolate citric acid from acidic fruits so instead it is mass produced by Aspergillus niger . Fungi are important in this aspect because they occupy little space, multiply rapidly, and are easily cultured.
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