Spring, 2018 Meserve GEOGRAPHY 8-WEATHER AND CLIMATE EXAM 2-Review Chapter 2.2-2

Question

Spring, 2018 Meserve GEOGRAPHY 8-WEATHER AND CLIMATE EXAM 2-Review Chapter 2.2-2.6 What are the key parts of the electromagnetic spectrum? Why is each important? How are temperature and heat different? How does heat move? Measures? Briefly describe the Earth's energy budget. **Explain the Greenhouse effect. (Be complete.) Briefly explain the key factors affecting the global temperature patterns. Describe and explain the pattern of ocean currents and their temperatures Chapter 3 What are the major types of humidity? Why is each important? **Explain atmospheric stability, instability, and conditional instability What are the major ways that air rises (and descends)? What is dew-point temperature? How is it related to clouds/condensation? What are the major types of clouds and how are they related to weather? What is fog and where do the different types usualy form? (* Tule fog) Briefly explain the two major processes that cause precipitation. Briefly describe the global pattern of precipitation. *Briefly explain how atmospheric conditions exacerbate hypothermia and hyperthermia.

Explanation / Answer

chapter-2

1.what are the key parts of the electromagentic spectrum ? why is each important?

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation.Those are microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma-rays.

Radio waves:- are characterized by higher wavelengths, greater than 1 millimeter. Higher frequency radio waves are called microwaves.

Infrared: with a wavelength between 700nm and 1mm, we humans we can not see it but we perceive it as heat on skin.

Visible light: with a wavelength between 700 and 400 nm, it is the part of electromagnetic spectrum that we can see and which is expressed through rainbow colors.

Ultraviolet: it has a wavelength between 400 to 10 nm and it is responsible for our tans.

X rays: characterized by a wavelength between 10 and 0.01 nm, they are very important for medical application because they are used for medical diagnostics.

Gamma rays: with a wavelength less than 0.01 nm, are those with greater energy

2.How are temperature and heat different?how does heat move? Measure?

Heat and temperature are inextricably linked concepts, but they aren't the same. Let's examine the differences.

Simply put, heat is energy. The molecules within any object contain energy, and the faster those molecules move, the hotter that object becomes. Based on the makeup of the object, the molecules have a maximum speed (and thus, heat) before the object will begin to change state. Think of an ice cube heating up enough to melt or a piece of wood heating up enough to burn.

Temperature: Measuring Hotness or Coldness.Heat is then communicated via temperature. Temperature, or the hotness or coldness of an item, is measured on three scales: Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin.

Briefly describe the Earth's energy budget?

Earth's energy budget is responsible for the balance between energy earth receives from the fun and energy earth radiates back into outer space after having been distributed throughout the five kinds of earth's climate system and having thus powered the so called " Earth's heat engine". This system is made up of earths's water ,ice,atmosphere,rocky crust,and all living things.

In spite of the enormous transfers of energy into and from the Earth, it maintains a relatively constant temperature because, as a whole, there is little net gain or loss: Earth emits via atmospheric and terrestrial radiation (shifted to longer electromagnetic wavelengths) to space about the same amount of energy as it receives via insolation (all forms of electromagnetic radiation).

Explain the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomena that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

The process of grennhouse effect:-

The problem we now face is that human activities – particularly burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), agriculture and land clearing – are increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases. This is the enhanced greenhouse effect, which is contributing to warming of the Earth.

Step 1: Solar radiation reaches the Earth's atmosphere - some of this is reflected back into space.

Step 2: The rest of the sun's energy is absorbed by the land and the oceans, heating the Earth.

Step 3: Heat radiates from Earth towards space.

Step 4: Some of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, keeping the Earth warm enough to sustain life.

Step 5: Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land clearing are increasing the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.

Step 6: This is trapping extra heat, and causing the Earth's temperature to rise.

Briefly explain the key factors effecting the global temperature patterns?

There are many factors that influence our climate.

Elevation or Altitude effect climate:-Normally, climatic conditions become colder as altitude increases. “Life zones” on a high mountain reflect the changes, plants at the base are the same as those in surrounding countryside, but no trees at all can grow above the timberline. Snow crowns the highest elevations.

Prevailing global wind patterns:- There are 3 major wind patterns found in the Northern Hemisphere and also 3 in the Southern Hemisphere. These are average conditions and do not essentially reveal conditions on a particular day. As seasons change, the wind patterns shift north or south. So does the intertropical convergence zone, which moves back and forth across the Equator. Sailors called this zone the doldrums because its winds are normally weak.Latitude and angles of the suns rays

As the Earth circles the sun, the tilt of its axis causes changes in the angle of which sun’s rays contact the earth and hence changes the daylight hours at different latitudes. Polar regions experience the greatest variation, with long periods of limited or no sunlight in winter and up to 24 hours of daylight in the summer.

Topography:-     The Topography of an area can greatly influence our climate. Mountain ranges are natural barriers to air movement. In California, winds off the Pacific ocean carry moisture-laden air toward the coast. The Coastal Range allows for some condensation and light precipitation. Inland, the taller Sierra Nevada range rings more significant precipitation in the air. On the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, sinking air warms from compression, clouds evaporate, and dry conditions prevail.

Effects of Geography:-    The position of a town, city or place and its distance from mountains and substantial areas of water help determine its prevailing wind patterns and what types of air masses affect it. Coastal areas may enjoy refreshing breezes in summer, when cooler ocean air moves ashore. Places south and east of the Great Lakes can expect “lake effect” snow in winter, when cold air travels over relatively warmer waters.

In spring and summer, people in Tornado Alley in the central United States watch for thunderstorms, these storms are caused where three types of air masses frequently converge: cold and dry from the north, warm and dry from the southwest, and warm and moist from the Gulf of Mexico - these colliding air masses often generate tornado storms.

Surface of the Earth:-   Just look at any globe or a world map showing land cover, and you will see another important factor which has a influence on climate: the surface of the Earth. The amount of sunlight that is absorbed or reflected by the surface determines how much atmospheric heating occurs. Darker areas, such as heavily vegetated regions, tend to be good absorbers; lighter areas, such as snow and ice-covered regions, tend to be good reflectors. The ocean absorbs and loses heat more slowly than land. Its waters gradually release heat into the atmosphere, which then distributes heat around the globe.

Climate change over time:-   Cold and warm periods punctuate Earth’s long history. Some were fairly short; others spanned hundreds of thousands of years. In some cold periods, glaciers grew and spread over large regions. In subsequent warm periods, the ice retreated. Each period profoundly affected plant and animal life. The most recent cool period, often called the “Little Ice Age,” ended in western Europe around 1850.

Since the turn of the 20th century, temperatures have been rising steadily throughout the world. But it is not yet clear how much of this global warming is due to natural causes and how much derives from human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and the clearing of forests.

Describe and explain the pattern of ocean currents and their temperatures?

The are two basic types of oceancurrents - surface and deep water currents - help define the character and flow of ocean waters across the planet.surface currents driven by wind and deep-water currents driven by variations in seawater density.

surface currents:- Surface currents refer to movement of the top layer of ocean water – the upper 330 feet or so – primarily driven by wind. The large-scale circulation of these surface currents roughly mirrors the large-scale circulation of air, which most simply derives from unequal heating of the planet’s surface by the sun. Currents form rotating systems in the middle of major ocean systems called gyres. Like the winds controlling them, these surface currents help redistribute heat at a planetary scale: Generally speaking warm water flows toward the poles and cold water flows toward the equator.

Deep water currents:-Deep-water currents describe water movement patterns far below the ocean’s surface and the influence of the wind. Instead of airflow, these currents primarily arise from variations in the density of seawater, controlled by its temperature and salt content (salinity). Their movement forms thermohaline circulation (“thermo” meaning temperature, “haline” meaning salinity) which crosses ocean basins and links to surface currents in what’s called the “global conveyor belt.”

In very simplified form, water moving into the polar regions gets cold enough to freeze into ice, leaving its share of salt behind; this makes the underlying water saltier, which in turn makes it denser. This cold, dense, saltier water sinks to the seafloor, replaced by surface waters that repeat the process. The deep current moves toward the equator and warms up, becoming less dense and rising to the surface in “upwellings.”

chapter-3

what are the major types of humidity?why is each important?

There are different kinds of humidity" Absolute, relative, and specific humidity are all terms that represent different aspects of humidity.

Absolute humidity:- This term is used to describe the actual amount of water vapor that is saturating the air. Absolute humidity is calculated by finding the mass of water vapor in an area and dividing it by the mass of air in the same area.

Relative humidity:- This is the type of humidity that meteorologists are typically referring to on their weather reports. Relative humidity describes the amount of water vapor in the area as opposed to how much water vapor could be in the area. This type of humidity is basically a ratio of the absolute humidity and the potential amount of water saturation that the air could possibly hold.

specific humidity:- This term is used as a ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air to the amount of dry air in the area.

No matter what name you call it by, humidity is a natural part of our climate that we have to adapt to. If we don't, then we'll have to settle for being uncomfortably warm and sweaty. Luckily, we have dehumidifiers to help us fight back against the damaging effects of moisture in the air.

Explain atmospheric stability,instability,and conditional instability?

There are different forms of precipitation (dew, fog, rain­fall, frost, snowfall, hailstorm etc.) depend on stability and instability of the atmosphere.

The air without vertical movement is called stable air while unstable air undergoes vertical movement (both upward and down­ward). An airmass ascends and becomes unstable when it becomes warmer than the surrounding airmass while descending airmass becomes stable.The stability and instability depend on the relationships between ‘nor­mal lapse rate’ and ‘adiabatic change of temperature’. Adiabatic rate is always constant whereas normal lapse rate of air temperature changes.

Stability:- When dry adiabatic lapse rate of an ascending dry air is higher than the normal lapse rate and if it is not saturated and does not attain dew point it becomes colder than surrounding air at certain height with the result it becomes heavier and descends. This process causes stability of atmospheric circulation due to which vertical circulation of air is resisted.

Instability:- When normal lapse rate is greater than dry adiabatic lapse rate of ascending parcel of air the rising air continues to rise upward and expand and thus becomes unstable and is in unstable equilibrium. In other words, atmospheric instability is caused when the rate of cooling of rising air (dry adiabatic lapse rate) is lower than the normal lapse rate.

Conditional Instability:- When a parcel of air is forced to move upward, it cools at dry adiabatic lapse rate (10°C per 1000m or 5.5°F per 1000 feet) whereas normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per 1000m. After rising to certain height the air becomes saturated and latent heat of condensation is added to the rising air so the rising air cools at wet adiabatic lapse rate (5°C per 1000m) whereas the normal lapse rate (6.5°C per 1000m) is greater than it.

Consequently, the air becomes warmer than the surrounding air and hence rises upward auto­matically. This is called conditional instability be­cause the air is initially forced to move upward but rises automatically due to its own properties after condensation point is reached.

what are the major ways that air rises( and descends)?

As we all known that Warm air rises, creating a low pressure region, and cool air sinks, creating a high pressure zone. Air flowing from areas of high pressure to low pressure creates winds. Air moving at the bases of the three major convection cells in each hemisphere north and south of the equator creates the global wind belts.At the top of the troposphere, the air travels horizontally from a low pressure zone to a high pressure zone. Since it is at the top of the troposphere, the air cools as it moves. This cold, dense air creates the downward flowing limb of the convection cell. Where the sinking air strikes the ground, air pressure is relatively high. This creates a high pressure zone. The sinking air is relatively cool, since it has traveled across the tropopause.

Air that moves horizontally between high and low pressure cells makes wind. The winds will race from the high to low zones if the pressure difference between them is large. If the difference is smaller, the winds will be slower.Convection in the atmosphere creates the planet's weather. It's important to know that warm air can hold more moisture than cold air. When warm air near the ground rises in a low pressure zone, it cools. If the air is humid, it may not be able to hold all the water it contains as vapor. Some water vapor may condense to form clouds or even precipitation. Where cooler air descends at a high pressure zone, it warms. Since it can then hold more moisture, the descending air will evaporate water on the ground.Air moving between large high and low pressure systems creates the global wind belts that profoundly affect regional climate. Smaller pressure systems create localized winds that affect the weather and climate of a local area.

What is dew-point temperature? how is it realted to clouds/condensation?

The dew point is the temperature at which air is saturated with water vapor, which is the gaseous state of water.

When air has reached the dew-point temperature at a particular pressure, the water vapor in the air is in equilibrium with liquid water, meaning water vapor is condensing at the same rate at which liquid water is evaporating.

Below the dew point, liquid water will begin to condense on solid surfaces (such as blades of grass) or around solid particles in the atmosphere (such as dust or salt), forming clouds or fog. Dew point is closely linked to relative humidity, which is the ratio of the pressure of water vapor in a parcel of air relative to the saturation pressure of water vapor in that same parcel of air at a specific temperature. Relative humidity (RH) is expressed as a percentage.

The relative humidity is 100 percent when the dew point and the temperature are the same. If the temperature drops any further, condensation will result, and liquid water will begin to form.

What are the major types of clouds and how are they related to weather?

The major types of clouds are:-

Cumulus:- Cumulus clouds are probably the most well-known of the cloud types. They generally form from convection, with air parcels rising vertically into the atmosphere (called updrafts) and condensing into the puffy, cotton-like clouds that we all know and love. Typically, cumulus clouds are associated with pleasant weather where you can lie back on the grass and admire the sky.

Cumulonimbus : If updrafts become stronger, those seemingly innocuous cumulus clouds may grow taller into what we call cumulonimbus clouds. These are the awe-inspiring and ominous clouds mainly observed during the summer months and can be indicative of developing thunderstorms, including lightning, hail, heavy rain and even tornadoes. The strongest thunderstorms can even produce cumulonimbus clouds that tower up to 60,000 feet!

Stratus:- Personally, stratus clouds are my least-favorite and I'm sure that likely goes for most people. These clouds, which look like a layer of gray blanketing the sky, are generally associated with wet conditions. They typically form when warm air is lifted over cold air, which allows the water vapor to condense rather uniformly, transforming the sky into a gray and dreary scene. In fact, stratus clouds can last for days and bring cool temperatures, persistent rain, drizzle, or even snow.

Cirrus:- Now on to my favorite type of cloud, cirrus clouds! Ever notice those high, thin and wispy clouds that usually make for beautiful sunsets? Yep, those are cirrus. They develop very high up in the atmosphere and are actually made up of tiny ice crystals. We can see cirrus clouds in a variety of scenarios including outflow from large scale storms, like nor'easters, tropical cyclones and even thunderstorm complexes. They also form out ahead of warm fronts and can be indicative of upcoming precipitation. While cirrus clouds may filter sunshine and make for a beautiful day, don’t be fooled…they can signify impending storms.

Contrails:- Now we reach the clouds that are sometimes at the center of controversy, contrails. No, they are not formed as a result of chemicals emitted into the atmosphere, but mainly because of the water vapor released by the exhaust of an aircraft. When the aircraft releases the hot water vapor at such a high altitude, it becomes trapped in a very cold environment where it almost immediately condenses and forms a cloud. Depending on how dry the upper atmosphere is, the contrail cloud may stick around for mere seconds or spread out and become cirrus clouds for hours. However, these clouds are not associated with any weather.

Lenticular:- The lenticular cloud is one of the more unusual cloud types and is more common to those living out west, especially in the Rocky Mountains. This cloud resembles a lens and is typically positioned over a high hill or mountain. As the wind blows against the mountains, it is forced upward and moisture condenses, forming a cloud that stays stationary until the uplift or moisture feed ends. Although these clouds could produce precipitation if dense enough, they are mainly an indicator of air turbulence downstream. However, due to their unique shape, many times they have been mistaken for UFO sightings!.

Mammatus:- Finally, we have mammatus clouds. These almost look like little pouches or bubbles of cloud hanging from the above cloud deck. Though their formation is still not completely known, they are generally associated with severe weather and usually extend from cumulonimbus clouds. Thus, you should always be alert for stronger thunderstorms if you ever see mammatus clouds! Such clouds also inform pilots of turbulent flying conditions and they are instructed to avoid the area.

What is fog and where do the different types usually form?

fog is actually just condensed water vapor close to the ground.

To understand fog, we first need to tackle humidity. The air around us can hold a certain amount of water vapor, or water in a gaseous state. As more and more water fills the air, the air feels more humid. The amount of water vapor in the air is known as humidity. When the water vapor completely saturates the air, the water droplets start to condense, or turn from a gas back into a liquid. These droplets of liquid are suspended in the air and appear as a thick haze, known as fog. The types of fog are separated into three main categories; some of these categories have multiple types.

RADIATION FOG:- Radiation fog is fog that is due to the cooling of the earth's surface at night. In the evening, the earth radiates off heat absorbed from the Sun's light during the day. As the warm air rises, the air near the earth's surface becomes cooler. Cold air can hold less water vapor than warm air, and the water vapor in the air near the surface condenses, forming radiation fog. Below is an image of radiation fog occurring over a field.

Advection Fog:- Advection fog is fog due to cool air mixing with warm air. Warm, moist air flows into a cooler area. Since cold air can hold less water vapor than warm air, the water vapor condenses and forms fog. This type of fog is common on the Pacific Coast of North America, where warm air from the Pacific Ocean mixes with cooler air on land. Below a diagram shows how advection fog forms along a coast. under this different form are

Upslope fog:-Upslope fog is when warm air is forced up over a mountain, where it interacts with the cooler air, allowing water to condense and form fog, as shown below.

valley fog:-A variant of upslope fog occurs in mountain valleys, where the fog condenses and lingers in the mountain valley, called valley fog.

rontal fog:-fog is when warm raindrops fall into an area of cooler temperatures, called frontal fog.

Steam fog:-Steam fog occurs over oceans, where the cold air from the ocean mixes with warm air above. This causes fog to form above the ocean surface.

Fog in Cold Climates:- Ice fog occurs in extremely cold climates where the temperature is well below freezing. When ice fog occurs, warm air interacts with extremely cold air and the water vapor sublimates, or changes directly from a liquid into a solid, to form tiny ice crystals suspended in the air. Typically, ice fog only occurs in polar or arctic air.

Briefly explain the two major processes that cause precipitation?

Precipitation forms when cloud droplets (or ice particles) in clouds grow and combine to become so large that their fall speed exceeds the updraft speed in the cloud, and they then fall out of the cloud. If these large water drops or ice particles do not re-evaporate as they fall farther below the cloud, they reach the ground as precipitation.Precipitation that does re-evaporate before reaching the ground is called "virga"

Evaporation:- Let's begin the water cycle journey with water on the surface of the Earth. That's where most of the liquid water on the surface is, right? Evaporation is the process by which water is converted from its liquid state to the gaseous state, also known as water vapor. In other words, water leaves the Earth's surface and enters the atmosphere as a gas.

In fact, the United States Geological Survey (the USGS) says that up to 90% of the water vapor in the air comes from surface water, including oceans, lakes and rivers, with the rest coming from plants. When this happens, anything that is in the water, dissolved or undissolved, remains behind. This includes salt, rocks, minerals, and other materials that often end up in the surface water.

Evaporation is a purifying process. One of the ways you can purify sea water is to heat it so it evaporates and then collect the steam. The steam is pure water, and getting it back to a liquid requires our next phase of the water cycle.

Condensation:- s the process by which water vapor is changed back into liquid water. Condensation is very important to our weather and climate because it is what is responsible for cloud formation.

Without clouds, we would not get to the third phase, called precipitation, which we will talk about in a minute. Clouds form when water vapor condenses around small particles, like bits of dust or smoke in the air. Depending on the size of the drops, these particles may or may not be visible. Even on a clear, cloudless day, water vapor is always present in the atmosphere, but it does vary in amounts. We know it is present on a very humid day; it often feels like we need to swim through the air! Fog is condensation near the ground.

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