1. If given a biological question, demonstrate your ability to scientifically an
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1. If given a biological question, demonstrate your ability to scientifically analyze the problem 2. How does the scientific method work? 3. How are clinical drug tests conducted? 4. What is natural selection, how does it work, and how does it compare to artificial selection? 5. How did the ideas of Lamarck differ from those of Darwin? 6. What evidence is there for evolution? 7. Give examples of homologous/vestigial structures and atavisms 8. What is the importance of the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium and how may it be violated? 9. What are the effects of different forms of natural selection? 10. How does one construct and read a cladogram? 11. How does speciation occur? 12. What are different types of reproductive isolating mechanisms? 13. What are the types of 14. What are major events in the evolution of life and when did they occur? 15. What is the basic structure of different types of prokaryotes? 16. How does this structure prevent cell lysis? 17. How does the arrangement of genetic material allow for rapid reproduction in prokaryotes; how do they maintain genetic diversity? 18. What are the Archaea and where are they found? 19. What is the theory of endosymbiosis? What is secondary endosymbiosis? 20. What are characteristics of the major groups of Protista discussed in class? 21. Why is the kingdom Protista not a valid kingdom? 22. How does one tell a plant from algae? 23. How does the moss life cycle differ from that of other plants? 24. How are ferns better adapted to life on land than mosses? How are they still tied to the water? 25. What are the major groups of seed and seedless plants discussed in class and how are they different? 26. What is the basic plant life cycle? 27. Where do plants make sperm and eggs? 28. Who are the major groups of seed plants, do any have swimming sperm? 29. What benefits do seed plants have over ferns in terms of life on land 30. What benefits do flowering plants have over gymnosperms? 31. In what ways are angiosperms affected by coevolution with pollinators and herbivores? 32. Where are the gametophytes found in seed plants? 33. How does sperm get to the egg in seed plants? 34. How do wind and animal pollinated flowers differ? 35. How do fungi obtain their nutrients? 36. In what ways do fungi interact with their environment? 37. How do mushroom producing fungi reproduce? 38. How do fungi benefit and otherwise affect humans? 39. What are traits shared by all animals? 40. What are major distinguishing traits of the phyla discussed in biology 2 lecture?Which groups are bilateral etc. 41. What groups have parasites or other disease causing organisms? 42. Why are arthropods so successful? 43. What are traits of Chordates? 44. Describe the adaptations to life on land, how do they parallel those seen in plants? 45. What makes us Human? 46. How is a bird adapted for flight? 47. How does available surface area influence fungi, plants and animals? 48. What was the significance of van HelmontExplanation / Answer
The scientific method (or simply scientific method) is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.[1] To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.[2] The Oxford English Dictionary says that the scientific method is: "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses."[3] The chief characteristic which distinguishes the scientific method from other methods of acquiring knowledge is that scientists seek to let reality speak for itself, supporting a theory when a theory's predictions are confirmed and challenging a theory when its predictions prove false. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methods of obtaining knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design experimental studies to test these hypotheses via predictions which can be derived from them. These steps must be repeatable, to guard against mistake or confusion in any particular experimenter. Theories that encompass wider domains of inquiry may bind many independently derived hypotheses together in a coherent, supportive structure. Theories, in turn, may help form new hypotheses or place groups of hypotheses into context. Scientific inquiry is generally intended to be as objective as possible in order to reduce biased interpretations of results. Another basic expectation is to document, archive and share all data and methodology so they are available for careful scrutiny by other scientists, giving them the opportunity to verify results by attempting to reproduce them. This practice, called full disclosure, also allows statistical measures of the reliability of these data to be established (when data is sampled or compared to chance). There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry. The scientific community and philosophers of science generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of natural sciences than social sciences. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below. Four essential elements[33][34][35] of the scientific method[36] are iterations,[37][38] recursions,[39] interleavings, or orderings of the following: Characterizations (observations,[40] definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry) Hypotheses[41][42] (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the subject)[43] Predictions (reasoning including logical deduction[44] from the hypothesis or theory) Experiments[45] (tests of all of the above) Each element of the scientific method is subject to peer review for possible mistakes. These activities do not describe all that scientists do (see below) but apply mostly to experimental sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, and biology). The elements above are often taught in the educational system as "the scientific method".[46] The scientific method is not a single recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity.[47] In this sense, it is not a mindless set of standards and procedures to follow, but is rather an ongoing cycle, constantly developing more useful, accurate and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia. On the contrary, if the astronomically large, the vanishingly small, and the extremely fast are removed from Einstein's theories — all phenomena Newton could not have observed — Newton's equations are what remain. Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories and, thus, increase our confidence in Newton's work. A linearized, pragmatic scheme of the four points above is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding:[48] Define a question Gather information and resources (observe) Form an explanatory hypothesis Test the hypothesis by performing an experiment and collecting data in a reproducible manner Analyze the data Interpret the data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for new hypothesis Publish results Retest (frequently done by other scientists)
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