Homework #1 Microbiology Compare and contrast all the kingdoms that contain Prok

ID: 83458 • Letter: H

Question

Homework #1 Microbiology

Compare and contrast all the kingdoms that contain Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes?

What type of organisms are found in the kingdom Archeabacteria ?

Define and describe function of each type of microscope?

Define the cell theory and explain why viruses do not belong?

How is incubation period different from convalescent period?

Describe the difference between sign and symptom?

Which characteristics do viruses share with living organisms?

Compare and contrast fomites, carriers, and vectors?

Write a contribution for each Scientist mentioned in lecture power point 1?

Compare and contrast convalescent carrier vs. incubation carrier?

Hello I really need help with all of these questions please and thank you!

Explanation / Answer

Ans 1:

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes divided into six kingdom classification which includes two prokaryote kingdoms and four eukaryote kingdoms. Eukaryotes are having membrane bound nucleus, mitochondria and the golgi body within their cells. The nucleus contains DNA for instance and the mitochondria are power hous of the cell. The exception to this rule is red blood cells which have no nucleus and do not live very long.

While prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, mitochondria or any other membrane bound organelles. In other words neither their DNA nor any other of their metabolic functions are collected together in a discrete membrane enclosed area. And everything is openly accessible within the cell but some bacteria have internal membranes as sites of metabolic activity these membranes do not enclose a separate area of the cytoplasm.

SIX KINGDOMS

ORGANIZATION

TYPES OF ORGANISMS

REPROUCTION

EUBACTERIA

Prokaryotic, unicellular organisms

unicellular and colonial--including the true bacteria (eubacteria)

asexual reproduction: binary fission

ARCHAEA

no cell nucleus nor any other membrane-bound organelles within their cells, most but not all have a cell wall e.g., thermoplasma, ferroplasma

halobacteria, ARMAN (Archaeal Richmond Mine Acidophilic Nanoorganisms), thermoplasma, ferroplasma

Archaea reproduce asexually by binary or multiple fission, fragmentation, or budding; meiosis does not occur

PROTISTA

Green, golden, red, and brown unicellular algae large, single eukaryotic cell (nucleus is enclosed by a membrane)

protozoans and algae of various types

asexually with binary fission

sexually --, two individuals join and exchange genetic material in the nucleus

FUNGI

multicellular,with a cell wall, organelles including a nucleus, but no chloroplasts. They have no mechanisms for locomotion. Fungi range in size from microscopic to very large ( such as mushrooms). Nutrients are acquired by absorption, for the most part, from decaying material.

funguses, molds, mushrooms, yeasts, mildews, and smuts

sexual and asexual

PLANTAE

multicellular form with specialized eukaryotic cells; do not have their own means of locomotion

seaweeds and kelp, mosses, liverworts, spores plants (club mosses & ferns), gymnosperms, and flowering plants

Sexual reproduction involves the male pollen grains traveling to the stigma of a flower

Asexual reproduction involves the production of a new plant without the use of flowers.

ANIMALIA

multicellular form with specialized eukaryotic cells; have their own means of locomotion

sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, roundworms, mollusks, annelids, arthropods, echinoderms and chordates, Humans, Elephants, Ants, Bees, Naked Mole rats

sexual reproduction through fertilization

Ans 2: The archaea bacteria are the primitive, single-celled microorganisms that are prokaryotes with no cell nucleus. Each archaea has the ability to live in very severe environments. Archaebacteria are one of the six kingdoms of life: plants, animals, protists, fungi, eubacteria and archaebacteria. The archaea differ from other forms of life as they survive in extreme environments like bottom of the sea and in acidic waters. The archaea species has a large variety with some possessing abilities not found in any other organisms like hanlobacterium that uses salt water to power poroton pump which provides energy to it.

Ans 3:

There are five different types of microscopes which includes:

1. Simple microscope

2. Compound microscope

3. Electron microscopes

4. Phase-Contrast microscope

5. Interference microscope

Microscope enlarge minute (micro = very small) organisms or their parts. A microscope provides both magnified view of the object and also resolves it better.

Simple Microscopes:

Dissecting microscope consists of a biconvex lens which is moved up and down by an adjustment screw to bring the object in sharp focus. The object is placed on the platform and light is focused with the help of a concave mirror fitted below. In simple microscope, convex lens of short focal length is used to see magnified image of a small object. The object is placed between the optical and the focus of a convex lens, its image is virtual, erect and magnified and on the same side as the object. The position of the object is so adjusted that the image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision (D). Magnifying power (M) of a simple microscope is the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object seen directly, when both lie at the least distance of distinct vision or the near point.

M = 1 + D/ f

D is the least distance of distinct vision and f is the focal length of the lens.

A Compound Microscope:

A compound microscope consists of two set of convex lenses. A lens of short aperture and short focal length facing the object is called objective. Another set of lens of relatively moderate focal length and large aperture facing the eye is called the eye piece. The objective and the eye piece are placed coaxially at the two end of a tube. The object is placed between the of curvature and focus of the objective – it forms real, inverted and magnified image on the other side of the objective. This image acts as an object for the eye piece which then acts as a simple microscope to produce virtual, erect and magnified image.

Magnifying power (M) of a compound microscope will be

M = L/ f0 (1+D/fe)

In which, f0and fe are focal length of objective and eye piece respectively, L is the length a the microscope tube and D is the least distance of distinct vision.

The Electron Microscope: The organelles of the cell became known after the electron microscope was invented. The electron microscope was made by M. Knoll and Ruska in Germany in 1932. It consist of a source of a beam of electron of uniform velocity, a condenser lens for concentrating the electron on the specimen, a specimen stage for displacing the specimen which transmits the electron beam, an objective lens, a projector lens and a fluorescent screen on which final image is observed. For permanent record of the image, the fluorescent screen is replaced by photographic film. This microscope utilizes a stream of high speed electrons which are deflected by an electromagnetic field in the same way as a beam of light is reflected when it crosses a glass lens. There are two types of electron microscope.

a. Transmission electron microscope (TEM):

This is used to observe fine structure of cells. Ultra thin sections of the object are prepared and they are stained with a heavy metal (gold or palladium) to make certain part dense, and inserted in the vacuum chamber of the microscope. A 100, 00 volt electron beam is focused on the section and manipulated prepared from the image may be enlarged with enough resolution to achieve a total magnification of over 20 million times.

b. Scanning electron microscope (SEM):

It is used to study the surfaces of the cell and organisms. In this microscope, the image is formed by electrons reflected back from the object. The image formed by this microscope has a remarkable three dimensional appearance. Typically magnification of scanning electron microscope is around 20,000 times.

Phase-Contrast microscope: It is used to study the behavior of living cells and to observe the nuclear and cytoplasmic changes taking place during mitosis and the effect of different chemicals inside the living cells. It provides the image of strong contrast of the. It is a contrast-enhancing optical technique that can be utilized to produce high-contrast images of transparent specimens, such as living cells (usually in culture), microorganisms, thin tissue slices, fibers, glass fragments, and sub-cellular particles (including nuclei and other organelles). The phase contrast technique employs an optical mechanism to translate minute variations in phase into corresponding changes in amplitude which can be visualized as differences in image contrast.

Advantages this microscopy is that living cells can be examined in their natural state without previously being killed, fixed, and stained.

Interference microscope: It is used for quantitative studies of macromolecules of the cell components like for determination of lipid, nucleic acids and protein contents of the cell. Interferometry is a traditional technique in which a pattern of bright and dark lines (fringes) result from an optical path difference between a reference and a sample beam. In this technique the incoming light is split inside an interferometer, one beam going to an internal reference surface and the other to the sample. After reflection, the beams recombine inside the interferometer, undergoing constructive and destructive interference and producing the light and dark fringe pattern. And a precision translation stage and a CCD camera together generate a 3D interferogram of the object that is stored in the computer memory. This 3D interferogram of the object is then transformed by frequency domain analysis into a quantitative 3D image providing surface structure analysis

Ans 4:

A cell theory supported an idea by many tests that have been repeated over and over to prove the same result. Cell theory is a collection of ideas and conclusions from many different scientists over time that describes cells and how cells operate. As cells has continuously evolved over time as new technologies have emerged and new information has been collected by scientists. Thus the cell theory can be defined as, all organisms are made up of cells an their products, also that growth and reproduction are fundamentally due to this division of cells

Parts of Cell Theory

Cell theory tells us three important things about cells:

1) All living things are made up of cells.

2) A cell is the smallest unit in a living thing.

3) All cells come from other cells.

Comparing viruses to living cells: Virus also known as a phage can only survive by infecting a living host cell and converting the cell to manufacture more viruses.Viruses have no metabolic apparatus and they do not digest, respire. They are not made of cells. They have no cell membrane, nucleus or cytoplasm. They are crystalline. Solutions of viruses leave behind crystals when evaporated. And they can reproduce but only inside a host. They contain genes made of either DNA or RNA. Virus can take over the cell activity of hosts they invade, not just kill them. And they can cause transmittable (contagious) diseases.

Ans 5:

Incubation period is the period between exposure to a pathogen and when symptoms or signs are first apparent. This hase signifies the period taken by the multiplying organism to reach a population necessary to produce symptoms in the host.

Convalescence period is the time the host recovers gradually and returns to baseline. The pathogen load starts to decline but may not be completely eliminated immediately and thus the host may continue to be a source of infection even if feeling better.

Ans 6: Signs are what a doctor sees, symptoms are what a patient experiences.

A symptom can be defined as one of the characters of a disease. While, sign is the definite indication of a specific disease.

Symptoms are described by a patient and signs are observed by physician. Symptoms are subjective but signs on the other hand are objective And the physical manifestations of a disease or injury are termed as sings whereas what a patient experience about disease or injury are termed as symptoms.

Ans 7: Use of genetic code an isolated virus is biologically inert, and yet it has a genetic program written in the universal language of life. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that cannot reproduce independently, it is hard to deny their evolutionary connection to the living world but found a way to reproduce. Because they depend on cells for their own propagation, it is reasonable to assume that they evolved after the first cells appeared. They do not fit usual definition of life and they can reproduce only within a host cell. And they do not have ribosomes to make proteins and they generally do not have a source of energy.

Ans 8: Formites is an inanimate object that can be the vehicle for transmission of an infectious agent (e.g., bedding, towels, or surgical instruments). Any nonliving objects or substances that potentially carry infectious organisms. A vector is an organism that passes a disease without getting sick.

A vector actively transmits an infectious agent between infected and susceptible vertebrates. Vectors can transmit infectious agents in two ways. They can serve as a vehicle whereby the infectious agent is conveyed from one host to another without undergoing a stage of development or multiplication. This is known as mechanical transmission. The infectious agent can undergo some stage of development or multiplication in the vector which is known as biological transmission.

Carrier is used to describe an individual that is infected by a disease agent and is capable of disseminating that disease agent but shows no sign of clinical disease. So the carrier has no symptoms of a disease but still passes it on to someone else. Three types of carrier state are recognised:

a. The true carrier, which is an infected individual capable of disseminating the infectious agent but which never exhibits clinical signs of disease.

b. The incubatory carrier, which is an infected individual capable of disseminating the infectious agent while the disease is still in the incubatory stage

Ans 9: Incubatory Carriers: An individual who is capable of transmitting a disease causing agent to others during the incubation period of the disease. Incubation period of a disease is the time from the first contact (infectious agent enters the host’s body) to the time when the host shows first signs and symptoms of the disease.

Convalescent Carrier: An individual who is fully cured of a particular disease but is still capable of transmitting the disease to others. This commonly happens with certain virus diseases like several forms of viral hepatitis and poliomyelitis and with some bacterial diseases including diphtheria and meningococcal meningitis.