7. What could be the applications of GMO crops and animals? What attitudes do bi

Question

7. What could be the applications of GMO crops and animals? What attitudes do biology scientists have towards GMOs?

8. What is PCR? What enzymes are critical for PCR? What are the three steps in a PCR cycle? How fast can PCR amplify DNA segments?

9. What technique is used for DNA molecules separation? What is the basis for such separation? Which electrode do DNAs move to and why?

10. What is genomics? What was Human Genome Project about (HGP)? What were the main findings of HGP?   

11. What is bioinformatics and proteomics? How can bioinformatics help evolution-related studies?

Explanation / Answer

GMO are Genetically modified organisms various application are

- Herbicide tolerance

- Insect resistance

- Altered fatty acid composition

- Virus resistance

- a number of microorganisms are being considered as future clean fuel producers and biodegraders.

- genetically modified plants may someday be used to produce recombinant vaccines.

A major concern of genetically modified organisms is that they will cause reduced genetic diversity of plants and animals in the environment, means is that the DNA, which codes for proteins in an organism, will become more similar between individuals of a species.

8. PCR - Polymerase Chain Reaction used to replicate the DNA segment in vitro in less time. from this technique no. of copies of DNA is produced from a single copy of gene. which is generally used in Forensic Science, DNA fingerprinting

Tac- Polymerase is the main enzymes to amplify the copies.

Three steps are -

1. Denaturing - means seperation of the DNA strands from each other.

2.  Annealing – when the temperature is lowered to enable the DNA primers to attach to the template DNA.

3. Extending – when the temperature is raised and the new strand of DNA is made by the Taq polymerase enzyme.

9. Gel Electrophorosis

SIze of DNA and Negative charge is the basic prinicple used to seperate the DNA Fragments. Lesser the Size of DNA rapidly it will move towards the Cathode.

DNA is a Negatively charged due to negatively charged oxygen in phosphate- suger backbone.

DNA moves towards Cathode which is positively charged and generally placed at bottom.

10. Genomics is the branch of Bology concered with the structure, function, mapping and evolution of Genomes.

The Human genome project was the international, collaborative research program whose goal
was the complete mapping and understanding of all the genes of human beings.

Main Findings are -

(i) The human genome contains 3164.7 million nucleotide bases.
(ii) The average gene consists of 3000 bases, but sizes vary greatly, with the largest known human
gene being dystrophin at 2.4 million bases.

(iii) The total number of genes is estimated at 30,000-much lower than previous estimates of
80,000 to 1,40,000 genes. Almost all (99.9 percent) nucleotide bases are exactly the same in all
people.
(iv) The functions are unknown for over 50 per cent of discovered genes.
(v) Less than 2 percent of the genome codes for proteins.
(vi) Repeated sequences make up very large portion of the human genome.
(vii) Repetitive sequences are stretches of DNA sequences that are repeated many times, sometimes
hundred to thousand times. They are thought to have no direct coding functions, but they shed
light on chromosome structure, dynamics and evolution.
(viii) Chromosome 1 has most genes (2968), and the Y has the fewest (231).
(ix) Scientists have identified about 1.4 million locations where single-base DNA differences
(SNPs -single nucleotide polymorphism, pronounced as 'snips') occur in humans. This
information promises to revolutionise the processes of finding chromosomal locations for
disease-associated sequences and tracing numan history

11. Bioinformatics is the branch of Biology where collecting and analysing complex biological data such as genetic codes are carried out, with the help of Computers.

Proteomics - study of Proteins

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